Methods for the transformation of vegetal plastids

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to novel methods for the generation of transgenic plants with genetically modified plastids, and to the transgenic plants generated with these methods.

The present invention relates to novel methods for the generation of transgenic plants with genetically modified plastids and to the transgenic plants generated using these methods.

Biotechnological work carried out on plants aims at generating plants with advantageous novel properties, for example to increase agricultural productivity, to increase the quality in foodstuffs or for producing certain chemicals or pharmaceuticals.

Plastids are organelles within plant cells which have their own genome. They play an essential role in photosynthesis and in amino acid and lipid biosynthesis. The plastids' genome consists of a double-stranded, circular DNA with an average size of from 120 to 160 kb and is present—for example in leaf cells—as approximately 1900 to 50 000 copies per cell (Palmer (1985) Ann Rev Genet 19:325-54). A single plastid has a copy number of approximately from 50 to 100. The term plastids comprises chloroplasts, proplastids, etioplasts, chromoplasts, amyloplasts, leukoplasts and elaioplasts (Heifetz P (2000) Biochimie 82:655-666). The various forms can be converted into one another and all arise from the proplastids. This is why all manifested forms of the plastids comprise the same genetic information. Preference is given in the literature as starting material for the transformation of plastids, however, to green cells, which comprise the chloroplasts as the manifested form.

It is of great economic interest for plant biotechnologists to develop efficient methods for the transformation of plastids (McFadden G (2001) Plant Physiol. 125:50-53). The stable transformation of plastids of higher plants is one of the great challenges.

In the transformation of plastids, the technique of undirected (illegitimate) DNA insertion, which is frequently employed in insertion into the nuclear DNA, has the disadvantage that it is highly likely that an essential gene on the gene-dense plastidic genome is affected, which would frequently be lethal for the plant. The directed insertion of foreign DNA is therefore advantageous in plastids.

Various methods for the directed insertion into the plastidic genome have been described. The first to be described was plastid transformation in green algae (Boynton J E et al. (1988) Science 240: 1534-1538; Blowers A D et al. (1989) Plant Cell 1:123-132), followed later by higher plants such as tobacco (Svab Z et al. (1990) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:8526-8530).

EP-A 0 251 654, U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,479, U.S. Pat. No. 5,451,513, U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,402, WO 01/64024, WO 00/20611, WO 01/42441, WO 99/10513, WO 97/32977, WO 00/28014, WO 00/39313 describe methods and DNA constructs for the transformation of plastids of higher plants, where the DNA to be transformed is introduced into the plastome (plastidic genome) via homologous recombination (“double crossover”). In general, homologous regions of 1000 bp or more on either side of the sequence to be inserted are employed. This rapidly gives rise to large vectors whose handling is not very convenient. Moreover, the transformation efficiency drops. The homologous recombination efficiency drops with the increasing length of the foreign DNA to be integrated. A further disadvantage is the fact that a homologous region which can be utilized for the process of DNA integration by means of double crossover must be identified for each plant species. WO 99/10513 claims the identification of an intergenic DNA sequence with supposedly sufficient homology between the genomes of the chloroplasts of many higher plants, which DNA sequence can thus act as a universal target sequence. However, it has not been demonstrated that this vector can be utilized successfully in species other than tobacco; rather, in WO 01/64024, the same inventor adapts the transformation vector to non-tobacco plant species by using homologous DNA sequences isolated from these plant species. Since only few recombination events result in all of the above-described methods, selection of the recombinant plastidic DNA molecules is required.

The plastid DNA of higher plants is present in the form of up to several thousand copies per cell. To ensure stable integration of foreign DNA, all copies of the plastidic DNA must be modified in the same manner. In plastid transformation, this is referred to as having reached the homotransplastomic state. This state is achieved by what is known as a segregation-and-sorting process, by exerting a continuous selection pressure on the plants. Owing to the continual selection pressure, those plastids in which many copies of the plastidic DNA have already been modified are enriched during cell and plastid division. The selection pressure is maintained until the homotransplastomic state is reached (Guda C et al. (2000) Plant Cell Reports 19:257-262). The modification of all of the copies of the plastidic genome in order to obtain homotransplastomic plants which have incorporated the foreign gene stably into their plastidic genome over generations without addition of a selection agent is a great challenge (Bogorad L (2000) TIBTECH 18:257-263). In addition to the continuous selection pressure, achieving the homotransplastomic state is, if appropriate, ensured by repeatedly regenerating tissue which has already been transformed (Svab Z and Maliga P (1993) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:913-917). However, this procedure limits the plant material which is available for plastid transformation. Coupling, if appropriate, the transgene with another gene which is essential for the survival of the plant is therefore proposed.

In most cases, tissue culture techniques and selection processes cannot be applied universally to all plant species and constitute a substantial limitation of plastid transformation, in particular with regard to the applicability of the method to species other than tobacco. (Kota M et al. (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1840-1845). A recently published transformation of tomato plastids is based on modifications in the regeneration and selection scheme (Ruf S et al. (2001) Nature Biotech 19:870-875), which, however, are expensive and time-consuming. Another approach aims at reducing the number of plastids per cell and the DNA molecules per plastid so that fewer DNA molecules have to be modified (Bogorad L (2000) TIBTECH 18:257-263). All of the selection and segregation processes are very time-consuming.

WO 99/10513 describes a method in which a plastidic ORI (origin of replication) is localized on the plasmid to be transformed in order to increase, in this manner, the number of copies of the vector to be transformed which are available for integration into the plastidic genome (Guda C et al. (2000) Plant Cell Reports 19:257-262).

The necessity of improving the plastid transformation technique is also mentioned in Heifetz and Tuttle (Heifetz P and Tuttle A M (2001) Curr Opin Plant Biol 4:157-161). WO 00/32799 teaches increasing the efficiency of plastid transformation by employing plants with enlarged plastids. This results in a large plastid surface, through which the DNA to be transformed can enter the plastids with greater ease. However, the mechanism of DNA integration relies, again, on conventional homologous recombination, as was the case in the above-described methods.

A variety of other methods for the sequence-specific integration of DNA—in particular into the nuclear DNA—have been described. A method based on self-splicing group II introns has been described. Self-splicing group II introns are capable of inserting in a sequence-specific fashion, for example into intron-free genes. The sequence-specific hydrolysis of the target DNA is catalyzed by an RNA-protein (ribonucleoprotein) complex. Here, the sequence specificity of the endonuclease function is determined in particular by base pairings being formed between the RNA moiety of the ribonucleoprotein complex and the target DNA. The use of group II introns as vectors for foreign DNA has been discussed. By modifying certain sequences of a group II intron, it was possible to modify the target specificity of the latter. Also, it was possible to insert further sequences into group II introns without destroying functions of the latter (Yang J et al. (1996) Nature 381:332-335; Eickbush T H (1999) Curr Biol 9:R11-R14; Matsuura M et al. (1997) Genes Develop 11:2910-2924; Cousineau B et al. (1998) Cell 94: 451-462). The adaptation to certain target sequences and the determination of the associated rules, however, is laborious and has as yet been elucidated in detail only for the Ll.ltrB intron (Mohr G et al. (2000) Genes Develop 14:559-573). Moreover, the retrohoming efficiency was reduced significantly by the modification, and not every single one of the modified introns tested inserted into the desired target DNA. The disadvantage of the technique is that some positions in the nucleotide sequence are fixed, which limits the choice of the target region in the DNA to be transformed (Guo H et al. (1997) EMBO J. 16:6835-6848). Moreover, the efficiency of the retrohoming process with regard to that of the wild-type intron appears to be diminished. The efficiency of intron insertion at different sites on the genes investigated differed with regard to its level. The work aimed at providing an improved method for the directed insertion of DNA into the nuclear DNA of organisms which permit no efficient homologous recombination (Guo et al. (2000) Science 289:452-456). The experiments described have been carried out extrachromosomally both in the prokaryote E. coli and in human cells. The applicability to the chromosomal DNA of higher organisms or the applicability to plastidic DNA was neither described nor demonstrated. It was merely proposed to attempt the optimization of this system in such a way that insertion into chromosomal DNA of higher eukaryotes can take place. This system is supposed to be an alternative method for higher eukaryotes which lack efficient homologous recombination (Guo et al. (2000) Science 289:452-456). This does not apply to plastids of higher plants, where homologous recombination—at least in the case of individual plastidic DNA molecules—can usually be performed without problems.

Plastid transformation was demonstrated not only in tobacco, but also in potato (Sidorov V A et al. (1999) Plant J 19:209-216; WO 00/28014), petunia (WO 00/28014), rice (Khan M S and Maliga P (1999) Nature Biotech 17:910-915; WO 00/07431; U.S. Pat. No. 6,153,813), Arabidopsis (Sikdar S R et al. (1998) Plant Cell Reports 18: 20-24; WO 97/32977) and oilseed rape (WO 00/39313). (Review article: Bogorad L (2000) TIBTECH 18:257-263). Transplastomic tomato plants have also been described recently (Ruf S et al. (2001) Nature Biotech 19:870-875).

The generation of sequence-specific double-strand breaks with the aid of restriction enzymes in eukaryotic genomes, including plants, has been described (Puchta H (1999) Methods Mol Biol 113:447-451).

WO 96/14408 describes the homing restriction endonuclease I-SceI and various possibilities for its use. An application for inserting DNA sequences into plastidic DNA is not described.

Posfai et al. describe a method for the substitution of genes in the prokaryote E. coli (Posfai G et al. (1999) Nucleic Acids Res 27(22):4409-4415). Here, an intramolecular recombination between the endogenous and the mutated gene takes place in the E. coli genome, which combination is induced by cleaving with the restriction enzyme I-SceI. Recombinations in E. coli proceed markedly more efficiently and, presumably, following different mechanisms than is the case in the nucleus of higher eukaryotes (for example described by Kuzminov A (1999) Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 63(4):751-813).

“Homing” refers to the phenomenon that two or more copies of a DNA sequence exist in one compartment, where at least one of these two sequences is interrupted by a further DNA sequence, and a copy of the interrupting DNA sequence is subsequently also introduced into the noninterrupted DNA sequence. This phenomenon usually takes the form of intron homing. Here, two or more alleles of one gene exist in one compartment, where at least one of these alleles has no intron. A copy of the intron is subsequently also introduced into the intron-free allele.

Introns in plastidic genes of higher plants have been described (Vogel J et al. (1999) Nucl Acids Res 27:3866-3874; Jenkins B D et al. (1997) Plant Cell 9:283-296; Xu M Q et al. (1990) Science 250: 1566-1570). The splicing of a homologous, unmodified intron with the natural exon regions at an ectopic locus in the plastidic genome has likewise been described (Bock R and Maliga P (1995) Nucl Acids Res 23(13):2544-2547). Experiments of introducing, into plastids of higher plants, heterologous introns which are additionally modified in such a way that they comprise additional genetic information and/or splice in a normatural sequence environment have not been carried out as yet.

Experiments carried out by Eddy and Gold into the homing process in E. coli have demonstrated that certain recombination systems are required. The type of the recombination system of the host is a key variable (Eddy S R and Gold L (1992) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:1544-1547). It was therefore impossible to assume that the naturally occurring homing process of one organism can be applied at will to another organism, in particular when this process probably does not occur naturally in the latter organism.

Durrenberger et al. describe the induction of an intrachromosomal recombination in chloroplasts of the single-celled green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii using the I-CreI homing endonuclease (Durrenberger F et al. (1996) Nucleic Acid Res 24(17):3323-3331).

The recombination takes place between the endogenous 23S gene and a 23S-cDNA which is inserted into the chromosome of an I-CreI deletion strain and which comprises an I-CreI cleavage site. Double-strand breaks are induced by mating the relevant transgenic organism with an organism which naturally expresses I-CreI. At the point in time of the double-strand break, the foreign DNA is already inserted into the chromosomal DNA, and recombination takes place intramolecularly and not between two separate molecules.

It has been shown recently that a mobile intron which naturally occurs in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and which also encodes a homing endonuclease can be transformed efficiently into an intron-free copy (Odom O W et al. (2001) Mol Cell Biol 21: 3472-3481). In this work, the increase of the transformation rate was dependent on the presence of the homing endonuclease. In the discussion, it is proposed in general terms and without specific suggestions regarding the implementation, to improve plastid transformation by inducing double-strand breaks. To this end, the recognition regions of rare nucleases were initially to be introduced in a first step, and the subsequent integration event was then to take place at the same locus. More detailed suggestions regarding the manner in which the recognition regions are to be introduced, the type of nucleases and recognition regions which can be used, the way in which the first step and the second step can be designed in actual reality, and the like, are not provided. All that has been shown to date is that the introduction of a homologous intron, into plastids of the alga Chlamydomonas, by means of the homing endonuclease naturally associated with the mobility of the intron did work. Moreover, the results were generated in an algal species. The abovementioned experiments by Eddy and Gold with E. coli, where no mobile group I introns are known, as is the case with the plastids of higher plants, demonstrate that an applicability to heterologous systems is not readily feasible. It is therefore by no means obvious for the skilled worker to apply the observations on the alga Chlamydomonas to higher plants. In contrast, there are a number of suggestions which make such an applicability rather doubtful:

-   1. Homing systems cannot be applied readily from one system to     another (Eddy S R and Gold L (1992) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA     89:1544-1547). The applicability to higher plants is all the more     dubious since no homing endonucleases have been identified in those     plastidic genomes of higher plants which have already been sequenced     (http://megasun.bch.umontreal.ca/ogmp/projects/other/cp_list. html).     It can therefore be assumed that the introns found in the plastidic     genome of higher plants are not mobile, and that no homing mechanism     exists naturally in these genomes. -   2. Chlamydomonas only has one plastid per cell, while in cells of     higher plants up to 100 plastids are present per cell. -   3. The efficiency of conventional plastid transformation in     Chlamydomonas exceeds that in higher plants by several orders of     magnitude, which suggests that these two systems cannot be compared     directly with one another. As regards the regeneration of     transplastomic algae or transplastomic plants, the fact that     division of the algal plastids is synchronized with the cell cycle,     while this is not the case for the plastids of the higher plants,     might also play an important role (Sato N (2001) Trends Plant     Science 6:151-155). -   4. The mechanisms of DNA integration into plastids of Chlamydomonas     and of higher plants appear to be fundamentally different. Thus, it     has been found that inter-specific plastid transformation (where     homologous regions are utilized instead of identical sequences) in     Chlamydomonas leads to a marked reduction of the transformation     efficiency, which was, however, not observed in tobacco. This also     applies analogously to the distance of a molecular marker on the     homologous DNA from the heterologous sequence on the transformation     plasmid: the closer the molecular marker to the edge of the target     region for integration by means of double crossover, the less     frequently it is transferred when transformed into Chlamydomonas     plastids. In tobacco, multiple recombination mechanisms were     observed, but here even molecular markers which were close to the     edge of the homologous regions were transferred efficiently into the     plastidic genome during transformation (Kavanagh TA et al. (1999)     Genetics 152: 1111-1122 and references cited therein). -   5. In Chlamydomonas, the plastids of the two parents fuse during     hybridization, even in the case of inter-specific hybridization. In     Chlamydomonas, plastid fusion is a natural process, and the DNA of     the plastids too is mixed and undergoes new recombination. This is     why mobile introns in the organelles of these organisms make sense.     In contrast, in most of the higher plants, the plastids are     inherited uniparentally, so that neither mixing of the plastidic DNA     results nor recombinations can occur between the maternal and the     paternal plastidic DNA. Even in those plant species in which the     plastids are inherited biparentally, no plastid fusion was observed.     It can therefore be assumed that natural plastid fusion in higher     plants can be ruled out (Hagemann R (1992) plastidic genetics in     higher plants; in Cell organelles, editor: Herrmann R G, Springer     Verlag, Vienna, pp. 65-96) and that mechanisms like intron homing     are either not developed or even suppressed.

Increasing the homologous recombination efficiency within the nuclear DNA with the aid of rare endonucleases has been described for various organisms (Puchta H et al. (1993) Nucleic Acids Research. 21(22):5034-40; Puchta H et al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:5055-5060; Rong Y S and Golic K G (2000) Science 28:2013-2018; Jasin M (1996) Trends Genet 12: 224-229). In contrast to plastids, insertion by homologous recombination into the nuclear DNA is problematic and usually takes place owing to random illegitimate integration. This demonstrates that techniques which are established for the nuclear genome cannot necessarily be applied to the plastids. In contrast to the situation regarding the nucleus, integration in plastids of higher plants takes place virtually exclusively, and with high efficiency, via homologous recombination (Bock R and Hagemann R (2000) Progress in Botany 61:76-90; Maliga P et al. (1994) Homologous recombination and integration of foreign DNA in plastids of higher plants. In Homologous recombination and gene silencing in plants. Paszkowski J, ed. (Kluwer Academic publishers), pp. 83-93).

The homologous recombination efficiency for the integration of DNA into the plastome has generally not been thought of as a limiting factor and, in contrast, considered as not being critical. Accordingly, current research into the optimization of plastid transformation does not focus on the optimization of homologous recombination but for example on improved selection markers, improved selection and regeneration techniques and the like. Nevertheless, no essential breakthrough has been achieved to date.

As emphasized clearly by the above-described methods and problems in the transformation of plastids, providing novel methods for the generation of homotransplastomic plants is a long-existing, unmet need of plant biotechnology. A further need is the avoidance of antibiotic or herbicide selection markers for reasons of registration and consumer acceptance. To date, no plastid transformation method has been described which does away with the need for such a selection marker.

It is therefore an object to develop novel methods which ensure efficient integration of foreign DNA in all copies of the plastidic DNA and which make possible the efficient selection of corresponding homotransplastomic plants. Surprisingly, this object has been achieved by providing the integration/selection method according to the invention.

A first subject matter of the invention relates to a method for the integration of a DNA sequence into the plastidic DNA of a multi-celled plant or cell derived therefrom and for the selection of predominantly homotransplastomic cells or plants, wherein

-   a) the plastidic DNA molecules of said multi-celled plant or cell     derived therefrom comprise at least one recognition sequence for the     directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks and -   b) at least one enzyme suitable for the induction of DNA     double-strand breaks at the recognition sequence for the directed     induction of DNA double-strand breaks and at least one     transformation construct comprising an insertion sequence are     combined in at least one plastid of said multi-celled plant or cell     derived therefrom, and -   c) DNA double-strand breaks are induced at the recognition sequences     for the directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks, and -   d) the insertion sequence inserts into the plastidic DNA, the     functionality of the recognition sequence for the directed induction     of DNA double-strand breaks being deactivated so that said     recognition sequence is no longer capable of being cleaved by the     enzyme suitable for the induction of DNA double-strand breaks, and -   e) plants or cells in which the insertion sequence has been inserted     into the plastidic DNA molecules are isolated.

Surprisingly, the system makes possible a substantial increase of he efficiency in the generation of predominantly homotransplastomic plants. In this context, not only the efficacy of insertion into the plastidic DNA, but also the efficacy of the selection process of predominantly homotransplastomic plants are increased.

Application of the method according to the invention results in a selection pressure of incorporating the insertion sequence into all of the copies of the plastidic DNA. Ideally, the insertion sequence is spread independently of the selection markers, such as herbicide or antibiotic resistances. This has pronounced advantages with regard to registration and/or consumer acceptance. However, the use of such selection markers can further increase the efficiency. The method according to the invention for the generation of homoplastomic plants clearly outperforms the prior-art methods since it shows a more rapid, more efficient and therefore more economical route to obtain homotransplastomic plants. A further advantage of the system is that the size of the constructs employed for the transformation can be kept small since the homologous regions in the plastid transformation vector can be smaller in comparison with the integration by means of double crossover, or can be completely absent.

The transformation of plastids has a large number of advantages over the transformation of the nucleus. The following are to be mentioned inter alia:

-   a) While homologous recombination into the nuclear DNA can only be     realized with difficulty, DNA in plastids can be integrated readily     at a predefined locus by means of double crossover, a form of     homologous recombination. Positional effects or gene silencing,     which are encountered in transformations of the nucleus owing to the     illegitimate integration at a non-predefined locus, are thus     avoided. -   b) Very high expression levels can be achieved, presumably owing to     the high copy number of the plastidic DNA. -   c) In higher plants, plastidic DNA is, as a rule, only subject to     maternal inheritance so that the foreign DNA introduced cannot be     spread via pollen and cross-pollination can thus be prevented     effectively. -   d) The prokaryotic nature of the plastids makes possible the     expression of genes in the context of a polycistronic operon     structure. It is therefore not necessary to equate each gene to be     expressed with its own promoter and the like. This facilitates the     introduction of a large number of genes in one pass, for example for     introducing entire biosynthetic pathways into the plastids.

“Plastid” refers to the proplastids and to all organelles to which they give rise, such as, for example, chloroplasts, etioplasts, chromoplasts, amyloplasts, leukoplasts, dermaplasts and elaioplasts (Heifetz P (2000) Biochimie 82:655-666).

“Plastome” refers to the genome, i.e. the totality of the genetic information, of a plastid.

“Homotransplastomic” refers to a transplastomic and homoplastomic state.

With regard to, for example, a plant, cell, tissue, plastid or a plastidic DNA, “transplastomic” refers to all those forms of the above, realized by recombinant methods, which comprise a plastidic DNA which has been modified by recombinant methods, it being possible for the modification to comprise, for example, substitutions, additions, deletions, inversions or insertions of one or more nucleotide residues.

“Heteroplastomic” refers to the presence of a mixed population of a variety of plastidic DNAs within a single plastid or within a population of plastids within a plant cell or tissue.

“Homoplastomic” refers to a uniform population of plastidic DNA within a single plastid or within a population of plastids within a plant cell or tissue. Homoplastomic cells, tissues or plants are genetically stable since they only comprise one type of plastidic DNA, i.e. they generally remain homopolastomic even when the selection pressure ceases. Progeny obtained by selfing are likewise homoplastomic.

For the purposes of the present invention, “predominantly homoplastomic” or “predominantly homotransplastomic” refers to all those plants or cells in which the percentage of the desired plastidic DNA molecules which have been modified with regard to a trait—for example with the recognition sequence for the directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks or the inserted insertion sequence—amounts to at least 50%, preferably at least 70%, very especially preferably at least 90%, most preferably at least 95% of the totality of all plastidic DNA molecules in a plant or a tissue, cell or plastid of same. Predominantly homoplastomic or predominantly homotransplastomic plants can be converted into homoplastomic or homotransplastomic plants by continued maintenance of the selection pressure and, if appropriate, repeated regeneration steps. Owing to the homing process, however, a continuous selection pressure is not necessarily required. In a particular embodiment, a predominantly homoplastomic, or homotransplastomic, plant is therefore truly homoplastomic, or homotransplastomic. A plant which, with regard to a DSB recognition sequence, is predominantly homoplastomic or homotransplastomic, or truly homoplastomic or homotransplastomic, is subsequently referred to as “master plant”. The percentage of the desired plastidic DNA molecules which have been modified with regard to a trait can be determined in the manner known to the skilled worker, for example by means of Southern analysis as described by way of example in Example 4. The ratio between the plastid starting DNA molecules and the plastidic DNA molecules which have been modified with regard to a trait can be determined by comparing the intensity of the bands in question.

“Multi-celled plant or cell derived therefrom” refers generally to all those cells, tissues, parts or propagation materials (such as seeds or fruits) of a plant which constitutes, or may constitute, a multi-celled organism in its adult state. Included for the purpose of the invention are all genera and species of higher and lower plants of the plant kingdom. Annual, perennial, monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants are preferred. Included are mature plants, seeds, shoots and seedlings, and parts derived therefrom, propagation material (for example tubers, seeds or fruits) and cultures, for example cell or callus cultures. “Mature plants” means plants at any developmental stage beyond the seedling stage. The term seedling means a young immature plant an an early developmental stage.

Preferred plants are those from the following plant families: Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Carophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Cruciferae, Cucurbitaceae, Labiatae, Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Liliaceae, Linaceae, Malvaceae, Rosaceae, Rubiaceae, Saxifragaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Solanaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tetragoniaceae, The aceae, Umbelliferae.

Preferred monocotyledonous plants are selected in particular from the monocotyledonous crop plants such as, for example, the Gramineae family such as rice, maize, wheat or other cereal species such as barley, millet and sorghum, rye, triticale or oats, and sugar cane, and all grass species.

Preferred dicotyledonous plants are selected in particular from dicotyledenous crop plants, such as, for example,

-   -   Asteraceae such as sunflower, tagetes or calendula and others,     -   Compositae, especially the genus Lactuca, very particularly the         species sativa (lettuce) and others,     -   Cruciferae, particularly the genus Brassica, very particularly         the species napus (oilseed rape), campestris (beet), oleracea cv         Tastie (cabbage), oleracea cv Snowball Y(cauliflower) and         oleracea cv Emperor (broccoli) and other cabbages; and the genus         Arabidopsis, very particularly the species thaliana, and cress         or canola and others,     -   Cucurbitaceae such as melon, pumpkin/squash or zucchini and         others,     -   Leguminosae, particularly the genus Glycine, very particularly         the species max (soybean), soybean, and alfalfa, pea, bean or         peanut and others,     -   Rubiaceae, preferably the subclass Lamiidae such as, for         example, Coffea arabica or Coffea liberica (coffee bush) and         others,

Solanaceae, particularly the genus Lycopersicon, very particularly the species esculentum (tomato), the genus Solanum, very particularly the species tuberosum (potato) and melongena (aubergine) and tobacco or paprika and others,

Sterculiaceae, preferably the subclass Dilleniidae such as, for example, Theobroma cacao (cacao bush) and others,

Theaceae, preferably the subclass Dilleniidae such as, for example, Camellia sinensis or Thea sinensis (tea shrub) and others,

Umbelliferae, particularly the genus Daucus (very particularly the species carota (carrot)) and Apium (very particularly the species graveolens dulce (celery)) and others; and the genus Capsicum, very particularly the genus annuum (pepper) and others,

and linseed, soybean, cotton, hemp, flax, cucumber, spinach, carrot, sugar beet and the various tree, nut and grapevine species, in particular banana and kiwi fruit.

Also encompassed are ornamental plants, useful or ornamental trees, flowers, cut flowers, shrubs or turf. Plants which may be mentioned by way of example but not by limitation are angiosperms, bryophytes such as, for example, Hepaticae (liverworts) and Musci (mosses); pteridophytes such as ferns, horsetails and clubmosses; gymnosperms such as conifers, cycads, ginkgo and Gnetatae, the families of the Rosaceae such as rose, Ericaceae such as rhododendron and azalea, Euphorbiaceae such as poinsettias and croton, Caryophyllaceae such as pinks, Solanaceae such as petunias, Gesneriaceae such as African violet, Balsaminaceae such as touch-me-not, Orchidaceae such as orchids, Iridaceae such as gladioli, iris, freesia and crocus, Compositae such as marigold, Geraniaceae such as geranium, Liliaceae such as dracena, Moraceae such as ficus, Araceae such as philodendron and many others.

Most preferred are Arabidopsis thaliana, Nicotiana tabacum, Tagetes and Brassica napus and all those genera and species which are used as foods or feeds, such as the above-described cereal species, or which are suitable for the production of oils, such as oil plants, nut species, soybean, sunflower, pumpkin/squash and peanut.

“Enzyme suitable for inducing DNA double-strand breaks at the recognition sequence for the directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks” (hereinbelow referred to as “DSBI enzyme” for “double strand-break inducing enzyme”) generally refers to all those enzymes which are capable of generating, in a sequence-specific manner, double-strand breaks in double-stranded DNA. The following may be mentioned by way of example, but not by limitation:

-   1. Restriction endonucleases, preferably type II restriction     endonucleases, especially preferably homing endonucleases as     described in detail hereinbelow. -   2. Artificial nucleases such as described in detail hereinbelow,     such as, for example, chimeric nucleases, mutated restriction or     homing endonucleases, or RNA protein particles derived from mobile     group II introns.

Both natural and artificially generated DSBI enzymes are suitable. Preferred are all those DSBI enzymes whose recognition sequence is known and which can be obtained either in the form of their proteins (for example by purification) or which can be expressed using their nucleic acid sequence.

The DSBI enzyme, whose specific recognition sequence is known, is preferably selected in such a way that it has no further functional recognition regions in the plastidic genome, in addition to the target recognition sequence. Homing endonucleases are therefore very especially preferred (review: Belfort M and Roberts R J (1997) Nucleic Acids Res 25:3379-3388; Jasin M (1996) Trends Genet 12:224-228; website: http://rebase.neb.com/rebase/rebase.homing.html; Roberts R J and Macelis D (2001) Nucleic Acids Res 29: 268-269). These meet this requirement owing to their long recognition sequences. Owing to the small size of the plastome, however, it is also feasible that DSBI enzymes with shorter recognition sequences (for example restriction endonucleases) can be employed successfully.

In addition to the above-described preferred embodiment, where only a singular recognition sequence for the DSBI enzyme is present in the plastidic DNA, cases where further, functionally identical, recognition sequences can be employed advantageously are also feasible. This is the case in particular when the plastome comprises duplicated genes (for example in the form of inverted repeats). Here, integration into all copies is to take place, so that cleavage in all copies is likewise desirable.

The sequences which encode such homing endonucleases can be isolated for example from the chloroplast genome of Chlamydomonas (Turmel M et al. (1993) J Mol Biol 232: 446-467). They are small (18 to 26 kD), but have, in their open reading frame (ORF), a “coding usage” which is directly suitable for expression in the nucleus or plastids of higher plants (Monnat R J Jr et al. (1999) Biochem Biophys Res Com 255:88-93).

Further homing endonucleases are mentioned in the abovementioned website; homing endonucleases which may be mentioned are, for example, F-SceI, F-SceII, F-SuvI, F-TevI, F-TevII, I-AmaI, I-AniI, I-CeuI, I-CeuAIIP, I-ChuI, I-CmoeI, I-CpaI, I-CpaII, I-CreI, I-CrepsbIP, I-CrepsbIIP, I-CrepsbIIIP, I-CrepsbIVP, I-CsmI, I-CvuI, I-CvuAIP, I-DdiII, I-DirI, I-DmoI, I-HspNIP, I-LlaI, I-MsoI, I-NaaI, I-NanI, I-NclIP, I-NgrIP, I-NitI, I-NjaI, I-Nsp236IP, I-PakI, I-PboIP, I-PcuIP, I-PcuAI, I-PcuVI, I-PgrIP, I-PobIP, I-PorI, I-PorIIP, I-PpbIP, I-PpoI, I-SPBetaIP, I-ScaI, I-SceI, I-SceII, I-SceIII, I-SceIV, I-SceV, I-SceVI, I-SceVII, I-SexIP, I-SneIP, I-SpomCP, I-SpomIP, I-SpomIIP, I-SquIP, I-Ssp6803I, I-SthPhiJP, I-SthPhiST3P, I-SthPhiS3bP, I-TdeIP, I-TevI, I-TevII, I-TevIII, I-UarAP, I-UarHGPAlP, I-UarHGPA13P, I-VinIP, I-ZbiIP, PI-MtuI, PI-MtuHIP, PI-MtuHIIP, PI-PfuI, PI-PfuII, PI-PkoI, PI-PkoII, PI-PspI, PI-Rma438121P, PI-SPBetaIP, PI-SceI, PI-TfuI, PI-TfuII, PI-Thyl, PI-TliI, PI-TliII.

Preferred in this context are those homing endonucleases whose gene sequences are already known, such as, for example, F-SceI, I-CeuI, I-ChuI, I-DmoI, I-CpaI, I-CpaII, I-CreI, I-CsmI, F-TevI, F-TevII, I-TevI, I-TevII, I-AniI, I-CvuI, I-LlaI, I-NanI, I-MsoI, I-NitI, I-NjaI, I-PakI, I-PorI, I-PpoI, I-ScaI, I-SceI, I-Ssp6803I, PI-PkoI, PI-PkoII, PI-PspI, PI-TfuI, PI-TliI.

Homing endonucleases which are especially preferably used are those which are found as such naturally, especially preferably those which are found naturally in organelles. Most preferably, the homing endonucleases originate from organisms which live at similar temperatures to plants. Those which are of particular interest in this contest are the homing endonucleases identified in yeast and Chlamydomonas species. Naturally, it is also feasible to utilize homing endonucleases which are isolated from extremophilic organisms, as long as they are active in the plastids of the plant to be transformed.

The following are very especially preferred:

-   -   I-CeuI (Cote M J and Turmel M (1995) Curr Genet 27:177-183.;         Gauthier A et al. (1991) Curr Genet 19:43-47; Marshall (1991)         Gene 104:241-245; GenBank Acc. No.: Z17234 nucleotides 5102 to         5758),     -   I-ChuI (Cote V et al. (1993) Gene 129:69-76; GenBank Acc. No.:         L06107, nucleotides 419 to 1075),     -   I-CmoeI (Drouin M et al. (2000) Nucl Acids Res 28: 4566-4572),     -   I-CpaI from Chiamydomonas pallidostigmatica (GenBank Acc. No.:         L36830, nucleotides 357 to 815; Turmel M et al. (1995) Nucleic         Acids Res 23:2519-2525; Turmel, M et al. (1995) Mol Biol Evol         12:533-545; see also SEQ ID NO: 13 and 14)     -   I-CpaII (Turmel M et al. (1995) Mol Biol Evol 12:533-545;         GenBank Acc. No.: L39865, nucleotides 719 to 1423),     -   I-CreI (Wang J et al. (1997) Nucleic Acids Res 25: 3767-3776;         Dürrenberger, F and Rochaix J D (1991) EMBO J. 10:3495-3501;         GenBank Acc. No.: X01977, nucleotides 571 to 1062),     -   I-CsmI (Ma D P et al. (1992) Plant Mol Biol 18:1001-1004)     -   I-NanI (Elde M et al. (1999) Eur J. Biochem. 259:281-288;         GenBank Acc. No.: X78280, nucleotides 418 to 1155),     -   I-NitI (GenBank Acc. No.: X78277, nucleotides 426 to 1163),     -   I-NjaI (GenBank Acc. No.: X78279, nucleotides 416 to 1153),     -   I-PpoI encodes on the extrachromosomal DNA in the nucleus of         Physarum polycephalum (Muscarella D E and Vogt V M (1989) Cell         56:443-454; Lin J and Vogt V M (1998) Mol Cell Biol         18:5809-5817; GenBank Acc. No.: M38131, nucleotides 86 to 577).         In addition, the longer sequence encoding I-PpoI, which         originates from an alternative start codon, may also be used.         This sequence comprises the nucleotides 20 to 577 in the         sequence of GenBank Acc. No. M38131. It is preferred to use the         shorter sequence; however, it can be substituted at any location         by the corresponding, longer one. A sequence which is especially         preferred for the purposes of the present invention is an         artificial sequence which encodes for the same amino acid as the         sequence of the nucleotides 86 to 577 of the sequence of GenBank         Acc. No.: M38131 (see also SEQ ID NO: 5, 11, 12, 70 or 71),     -   I-PspI (GenBank Acc. No.: U00707, nucleotides 1839 to 3449),     -   I-ScaI (Monteilhet C et al. (2000) Nucleic Acids Res 28:         1245-1251; GenBank Acc. No.: X95974, nucleotides 55 to 465)     -   I-SceI from the mitochondria of bakers' yeast (WO 96/14408;

U.S. Pat. No. 5,962,327 Seq ID NO: 1 therein),

-   -   Endo SceI (Kawasaki et al. (1991) J Biol Chem 266:5342-5347,         identical with F-SceI; GenBank Acc. No.: M63839, nucleotides 159         to 1589),     -   I-SceII (Sarguiel B et al. (1990) Nucleic Acids Res         18:5659-5665),     -   I-SceIII (Sarguiel B et al. (1991) Mol Gen Genet. 255:340-341),     -   I-Ssp68031 (GenBank Acc. No.: D64003, nucleotides 35372 to         35824),     -   I-TevI (Chu et al. (1990) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:3574-3578;         Bell-Pedersen et al. (1990) Nucleic Acids Res 18:3763-3770;         GenBank Acc. No.: AF158101, nucleotides 144431 to 143694),     -   I-TevII (Bell-Pedersen et al. (1990) Nucleic Acids Res         18:3763-3770; GenBank Acc. No.: AF158101, nucleotides 45612 to         44836),     -   I-TevIII (Eddy et al. (1991) Genes Dev. 5:1032-1041),

Commercially available homing endonucleases such as I-CeuI, I-SceI, I-PpoI, PI-PspI or PI-SceI are very especially preferred. Most preferred are I-SceI and I-PpoI. While the gene encoding I-PpoI can be used in its natural form, the gene encoding I-SceII contains an editing locus. Since, in contrast to yeast mitochondria, the editing in question is not performed in the plastids of higher plants, an artificial sequence which encodes the I-SceI protein must be employed for the heterologous expression of this enzyme (U.S. Pat. No. 5,866,361).

In addition to the above-stated homing endonucleases, there are further intron-encoded enzymes which can be found at homologous locations of the genomes of related organisms. As a rule, these homing endonucleases have similar sequence specificity and are therefore equally suited as DSBI enzyme for the introduction of a DSB into the plastome at the DSB recognition sequence. The corresponding sequence is thus also recognized by Sob2593c, Clu2593c, Col2593c, Ciy2593c, Hla2593c, Cag2593c, I-CvuI, I-PakI, Tmu2593c, Msp2593c, I-MsoI, Sdu2593c, Mvi2593m, Nol2593m or Aca2593m, in addition to I-CreI. Corresponding sequence is also recognized by I-CecI, I-CmoI, I-CelI, I-CpaIII, I-CmuI, I-CluI, I-SobI or I-AstI, in addition to I-CeuI. A corresponding sequence is also recognized by Cbr1931c, Cfr1931c, Cme1931c, Cge1931c, Pcr1931c, Msp1931c, Mso1931C, Ptu1931c, Cvu1931m, Msp1931m, Msol931m, Nol1931m, Acal931m or Sne1931b, in addition to I-CpaI. Moreover, introns exist which are inserted at position 1951 of the 23S rDNA (numbering refers to homologous position in the 23S rDNA of E. coli). These introns, again, encode putative homing endonucleases which can be used as. DSBI enzymes for the specific cleavage of the plastidic DNA. They include, for example, Cbr1951c, Msp1951c, Mso1951c, Cvu1951m or Acal951m (Lucas P et al. (2001) Nucl Acids Res 29:960-969).

Most preferred are the homing endonucleases of the protein sequences described by SEQ ID NO: 5, 12 or 14. When preparing corresponding expression cassettes, accordingly, nucleic acid sequences are employed which encode a protein as shown in SEQ ID NO: 5, 12 and 14, respectively; especially preferred in this context is the use of the nucleic acid sequences as shown in SEQ ID NO: 11 and 13 or of an expression cassette as shown in SEQ ID NO: 4.

The enzymes can be isolated from their source organisms in the manner with which the skilled worker is familiar and/or the nucleic acid sequence encoding them can be cloned. The sequences of a variety of enzymes have been deposited at GenBank (see above).

Examples of artificial DSBI enzymes by way of example are chimeric nucleases which are composed of an unspecific nuclease domain and a sequence-specific DNA binding domain (for example consisting of zinc fingers) (Smith J et al. (2000) Nucl Acids Res 28(17):3361-3369; Bibikova M et al. (2001) Mol Cell Biol. 21:289-297). Thus, for example, the catalytic domain of the restriction endonuclease FokI has been fused with zinc finger binding domains, whereby the specificity of the endonuclease has been defined (Chandrasegaran S & Smith J (1999) Biol Chem 380:841-848; Kim Y G & Chandrasegaran S (1994) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:883-887; Kim Y G et al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:1156-1160). The catalytic domain of the yeast Ho endonuclease, too, has already been conferred a predefined specificity, using the above-described technique, by fusing it with the zinc finger domain of transcription factors (Nahon E & Raveh D (1998) Nucl Acids Res 26:1233-1239).

As mentioned, zinc finger proteins are particularly suitable as DNA binding domain for the purpose of chimeric nucleases. These DNA-binding zinc finger domains can be adapted to match any desired DNA sequence. Suitable methods for the preparation of such zinc finger domains are described and known to the skilled worker (Beerli R R et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97(4):1495-1500; Beerli R R et al. (2000) J Biol Chem 275(42):32617-32627; Segal D J and Barbas C F 3rd. (2000) Curr Opin Chem Biol 4(1):34-39; Kang J S and Kim J S (2000) J Biol Chem 275(12):8742-8748; Beerli R R et al. (1998) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(25):14628-14633; Kim J S et al. (1997) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(8):3616-3620; Klug A (1999) J Mol Biol 293(2):215-218; Tsai S Y et al. (1998) Adv Drug Deliv Rev 30(1-3):23-31; Mapp A K et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97(8):3930-3935; Sharrocks A D et al. (1997) Int J Biochem Cell Biol 29(12):1371-1387; Zhang L et al. (2000) J Biol Chem 275(43):33850-33860). Methods for the preparation and selection of zinc finger DNA binding domains with high sequence specificity have been described (WO 96/06166, WO 98/53059, WO 98/53057). Fusing a DNA binding domain thus obtained with the catalytic domain of an endonuclease (such as, for example, the FokI or Ho endonuclease) allows the preparation of chimeric nucleases with any desired specificity which can be employed advantageously as DSBI enzymes for the purposes of the present invention.

Artificial DSBI enzymes with modified sequence specificity can also be prepared by mutating known restriction endonucleases or homing endonucleases by methods known to the skilled worker. The mutagenesis of maturases with the purpose of obtaining a modified substrate specificity is of particular interest, besides the mutagenesis of homing endonucleases. Frequently, maturases share many features with homing endonucleases and, if appropriate, they can be converted into nucleases by carrying out few mutations. This has been shown, for example, for the maturase in the bakers' yeast bi2 intron. Only two mutations in the maturase-encoding open reading frame (ORF) sufficed to confer a homing endonuclease activity to this enzyme (Szczepanek & Lazowska (1996) EMBO J 15:3758-3767).

Further artificial nucleases can be generated with the aid of mobile group II introns and the proteins encoded by them, or parts of these proteins. Many mobile group II introns, together with the proteins encoded by them, form RNA-protein particles which are capable of recognizing, and cleaving, DNA in a sequence-specific manner. Here, the sequence specificity can be adapted to suit the needs by mutating certain intron regions (see hereinbelow) (WO 97/10362).

The skilled worker is familiar with various methods for introducing a DSBI enzyme into plastids or expressing it therein.

The following may be mentioned by way of example, but not by limitation:

a) Nuclear expression using plastidic transit peptides

-   -   An expression cassette encoding a DSBI enzyme fusion protein can         be constructed in the manner known to the skilled worker,         introduced into the nucleus and—optionally—integrated stably         into the chromosomal DNA. For transport into the plastids, the         DSBI enzyme is preferably expressed in fusion with a plastid         localization sequence (PLS). Methods for the direct         transportation, into the plastids, of proteins which per se are         not localized in the plastids, and a variety of PLS sequences,         have been described (Klosgen R B and Weil J H (1991) Mol Gen         Genet 225(2):297-304; Van Breusegem F et al. (1998) Plant Mol         Biol 38(3):491-496). Preferred are those PLS which, after         translocation of the DSBI enzyme into the plastids, are cleaved         enzymatically from the DSBI enzyme moiety. Especially preferred         is the PLS which is derived from the plastidic Nicotiana tabacum         transketolase or from another transit peptide (for example the         transit peptide of the small Rubisco subunit or of the         ferredoxin NADP oxidoreductase, and also         isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2) or its functional         equivalent. Promoters which are suitable for expression in the         nucleus are, in principle, all those which make possible an         expression in plants. Examples can be found further below.         Preferred are constitutive promoters such as the CaMV ³⁵S         promoter or the nitrilase-1 promoter of the Arabidopsis nitl         gene (GenBank Acc. No.: Y07648.2, nucleotides 2456 to 4340;         Hillebrand H et al. (1998) Plant Mol Biol 36 (1):89-99;         Hillebrand H et al. (1996) Gene 170(2):197-200).

Preferred PLS sequences are:

-   -   i) the Arabidopsis isopentenyl isomerase (IPP) transit peptide         (GenBank Acc. No.: NC 003074; nucleotides 604657-604486)     -   ii) transit peptides derived from the small subunit (SSU) of         ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco ssu) from, for         example, pea, maize, sunflower or Arabidopsis.         -   Arabidopsis thaliana: GenBank Acc. No.: for example             AY054581, AY054552;         -   pea, GenBank Acc. No.: for example X00806, nucleotides 1086             to 1256; X04334, X04333 (Hand JM (1989) EMBO J             8(11):3195-206). Especially preferred in this context are:             expression cassette and transit peptide (pea, rbcS3A) from             vector pJIT117 (Guerineau F (1988) Nucleic Acids Res             16(23):11380. Especially preferred is the peptide sequence             as shown in SEQ ID NO: 35. Most preferred for the use in             constructing suitable expression constructs is the nucleic             acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO: 34.         -   maize, GenBank Acc. No.: for example S42568, S42508         -   sunflower, GenBank Acc. No.: Y00431, nucleotides 301 to 465.     -   iii) transit peptides derived from plant fat biosynthesis genes,         such as the transit peptide of the plastid acyl carrier protein         (ACP) (for example the Arabidopsis thaliana beta-ketoacyl-ACP         synthetase 2; GenBank Acc. No.: AF318307), stearyl-ACP         desaturase, β-ketoacyl-ACP synthase or acyl-ACP thioesterase         (for example A. thaliana mRNA for acyl-(acyl carrier         protein)thioesterase: GenBank Acc. No.: Z36911).     -   iv) the GBSSI (starch granule bound synthase I) transit peptide     -   v) the transit peptide of the LHCP II genes.     -   Especially preferred is the PLS of the plastidic tobacco         transketolase (SEQ ID NO: 36). To express corresponding fusion         proteins, different PLS nucleic acid cassettes can be used in         the three reading frames as KpnI/BamHI fragments for the         purposes of the present invention (the translation start (ATG         codon) is localized in the NcoI cleavage site) (pTP09 SEQ ID NO:         37; pTP10 SEQ ID NO: 38; pTP11 SEQ ID NO: 39).     -   A further example of a PLS to be employed advantageously is the         transit peptide of the plastidic Arabidopsis thaliana         isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2) (SEQ ID NO: 40).         The nucleic acid sequences encoding three cassettes         (corresponding to the three reading frames) of the PLS from the         Arabidopsis thaliana isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2         (IPP-2) can be used very especially preferably (EcoRV/SalI         cassettes with ATG; IPP-9 SEQ ID NO: 41; ipp-10 SEQ ID NO: 42;         IPP-11 SEQ ID NO: 43).     -   The nucleic acids according to the invention can be of synthetic         origin or have been obtained naturally or comprise a mixture of         synthetic and natural nucleic acid components, or else consist         of various heterologous gene segments from a variety of         organisms.     -   The sequence encoding the transit peptide can comprise all or         part of the peptide sequence of the original protein. An         accurate determination of the amino acid residues which are         essential for the transport is not required as long as the         functionality of the PLS—which is the transport into the         plastid—is ensured and the function of the DSBI enzyme is not         entirely destroyed. Very especially preferred are the following         PLS sequences:     -   PLS1: N-MASSSSLTLSQAILSRSVPRHGSASSSQLSPSSLTFSGLKSNPNITTSRRR         TPSSAAAAAVVRSPAIRASAATETIEKTETAGS-C (SEQ ID NO: 36). Corresponds         to the PLS of the tobacco plastidic transketolase.     -   PLS2: N-MSASSLFNLPLIRLRSLALSSSFSSFRFAHRPLSSISPRKLPNFRAFSGTA         MTDTKDGSRVDM-C (SEQ ID NO: 40). Corresponds to the PLS of         isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2), the last         methionine preferably being the start methionine of the DSBI         enzyme.     -   The homing endonuclease as shown in SEQ ID NO: 69 is a preferred         fusion protein of the native I-Ppo I nuclease and the IPP         plastid localization sequence. This protein is preferably         encoded by the sequence with the SEQ ID NO: 68.     -   For the purposes of the present invention, fusion proteins of         PLS and DSBI enzyme come under the term “DSBI enzyme”. If a DSBI         enzyme is expressed in the nucleus, the DSBI enzyme is         preferably understood as meaning a fusion protein of PLS and         DSBI enzyme.     -   The invention furthermore relates to fusion proteins of DSBI         enzymes with plastid localization sequence (PLS), sequences and         expression cassettes comprising a fusion protein of a plastid         localization sequence (PLS) and a DSBI enzyme under the control         of a promoter which is functional in the plant nucleus. Such         suitable promoters are known to the skilled worker and described         further below. The expression cassette can comprise further         elements such as, for example, transcription terminators and/or         selection markers.         b) Expression in plastids     -   An expression in plastids can also take place by the direct         introduction of an expression cassette for the DSBI enzyme into         plastids, if appropriate integration into the plastidic DNA, and         expression of the DSBI enzyme. In a preferred embodiment, this         expression cassette is present in the transformation construct         which comprises the insertion sequence.     -   Promoters which can be employed are, firstly, specific plastid         or chromoplast promotors as detailed hereinbelow.

However, a directed expression in plastids can also be achieved by using for example a viral, bacterial or bacteriophage promoter, introducing the resulting expression cassette into the plastidic DNA, and then inducing expression by the corresponding viral, bacterial or bacteriophage RNA polymerase. The corresponding RNA polymerase, in turn, can be introduced into the plastids in various ways, preferably by nuclear transformation in the form of a fusion protein with a PLS. Suitable methods have been described (WO 95/16783, WO 97/06250, U.S. Pat. No. 5,925,806). It is preferably introduced into plastids by microinjection, especially preferably by means of particle bombardment.

-   -   c) Introduction in the Form of RNA     -   The DSBI enzyme can also be introduced into plastids by         introducing the mRNA—for example mRNA which has been generated         in vitro—which encodes the DSBI enzyme via, for example,         microinjection, particle bombardment (biolistic methods), or         polyethylene glycol- or liposome-mediated transfection. This         embodiment is advantageous since no DSBI-enzyme-encoding         sequences remain in the plastome or genome in this case.         Preferably, the RNA encoding the DSBI enzyme is generated by         in-vitro transcription in the manner with which the skilled         worker is familiar.         d) Introduction in the Form of the Protein     -   The DSBI enzyme can be introduced into plastids directly, for         example via microinjection, particle bombardment (biolistic         methods) or polyethylene glycol transfection or         liposome-mediated transfection. This embodiment is advantageous         since no DSBI-enzyme-encoding sequences remain in the plastome         or genome. Such a method is described, for example, by Segal D J         et al. (1995) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:806-810.     -   The DSBI enzyme can be introduced into plant cells as a fusion         protein with the VirE2 or VirF protein of an agrobacterium and a         PLS. Such methods have been described for example for Cre         recombinase (Vergunst AC et al. (2000) Science 290:979-982).         This embodiment is advantageous since no DSBI enzyme-encoding         sequences remain in the genome.

Of course, combinations of the above-described possibilities are also feasible.

The expression cassette for the DSBI enzyme is preferably present on the insertion sequence or on the transformation construct.

The DSBI enzyme is preferably introduced, or activated, simultaneously with, or after, the introduction of the insertion sequence into the plastids. Expression and/or activation at the correct site and the correct point in time can be ensured by various approaches:

a) Inducible Expression

-   -   The expression of a DSBI enzyme can be controlled using an         inducible promoter, preferably a chemically inducible promoter.         To this end, for example, the expression cassette which encodes         the DSBI enzyme can be transformed stably into the plastidic or         nuclear DNA of a master plant. If it is transformed into the         nuclear genome, the subcellular localization must be ensured—as         described above—by suitable PLS transit peptides. Shortly before         or during the transformation with the insertion sequence or the         transformation construct, the expression of the DSBI enzyme will         then be switched on by applying a suitable inductor, which         depends on the choice of the inducible system. The skilled         worker is familiar with a variety of methods or promoters for         induced expression. Chemical compounds or else physical stimuli         such as, for example, increased temperature or wounding and the         like can act as stimulus. Various examples are described further         below.     -   b) Inducible Activity     -   The DSBI enzyme can already exist in the plastids of the master         plant when the activity is induced by suitable techniques at the         selected point in time only, for example by addition of chemical         compounds. Such methods have been described for         sequence-specific recombinases (Angrand P O et al. (1998) Nucl         Acids Res 26(13):3263-3269; Logie C and Stewart A F (1995) Proc         Natl Acad Sci USA 92(13):5940-5944; Imai T et al. (2001) Proc         Natl Acad Sci USA 98(1):224-228). Fusion proteins of the DSBI         enzyme and the ligand binding domain of a steroid hormone         receptor (for example the human androgen receptor, or mutated         variants of the human estrogen receptor as described therein)         are employed in these methods. Induction can be effected with         ligands such as, for example, estradiol, dexamethasone,         4-hydroxytamoxifen or raloxifen.     -   Some of the DSBI enzymes are active in the form of the dimer         (homo- or heterodimer) (1-CreI forms a homodimer; I-PpoI forms a         homodimer, Flick K E et al. (1998) Nature 394: 96-101). In         general, enzymes of the LAGLIDADG family tend to form homodimers         when only one LAGLIDADG motif is present per monomer (Jurica M S         & Stoddard B L (1999) Cell Mol Life Sci 55:1304-1326; I-CeuI may         be mentioned by way of example). A dimerization can be designed         to be inducible, for example by substituting the natural         dimerization domains by the binding domain of a         low-molecular-weight ligand. Addition of a dimeric ligand then         brings about the dimerization of the fusion protein. Such         inducible dimerization methods are described, as is the         preparation of the dimeric ligands (Amara J F et al. (1997) Proc         Natl Acad Sci USA 94(20): 10618-10623; Muthuswamy S K et         al. (1999) Mol Cell Biol 19(10): 6845-6857; Schultz L W and         Clardy J (1998) Bioorg Med Chem Lett 8(1):1-6; Keenan T et         al. (1998) Bioorg Med. Chem. 6(8):1309-1335).         c) Cotransfection     -   The expression cassette encoding the DSBI enzyme is preferably         introduced into the plastids simultaneously with the insertion         sequence. In this context, the expression cassette for the DSBI         enzyme and the insertion sequence may be present on one DNA         molecule or else on two separate DNA molecules. Preferably, the         two sequences are present together on one DNA molecule, so that         the expression cassette is present in the transformation         construct comprising the insertion sequence.     -   In an especially preferred embodiment, the sequence encoding the         DSBI enzyme is removed from the genome of the transformed         plasmids after homoplastomic plants have been regenerated. The         skilled worker is familiar with a variety of methods for doing         so which are detailed further below.

Some of the above-described DSBI enzymes (in particular homing endonucleases) can have recognition sequences in the intermediate host E. coli, which is preferably used. Since, moreover, some expression cassettes for expression in plastids are also functional in E. coli, it is preferred to prevent expression of the DSBI enzyme in E. coli in various ways with which the skilled worker is familiar in order to avoid any disadvantageous effects on E. coli during amplification of the expression cassette. Thus, for example, several consecutive codons which occur rarely in E. coli (for example the codons AGA and AGG, which encode arginine) can be inserted into the reading frame of the DSBI enzyme. This prevents expression in E. coli, but—owing to the different codon usage—continues to make possible expression in the plastids. As an alternative, promoters which are not active in E. coli, but are active in the plastids of higher plants can be used (for example promoters of the nuclear encoded plastidic RNA polymerases [NEP promoters; see hereinbelow]). A preferred method is the use of promoters which are recognized neither by the plastids nor by E. coli (for example viral promoters or bacteriophage promoters) and which only become functional by the simultaneous presence of the corresponding viral/bacteriophage RNA polymerase. Such methods are known to the skilled worker and described hereinbelow. Furthermore, it is feasible to destroy the relevant DSB recognition sequences in E. coli or to use a different host which has no DSB recognition sequences for the DSBI enzyme in question. Moreover, it is feasible and advantageous to have the coding region of the DSBI enzyme in promoterless form for amplification in E. coli. In this case, the sequence which encodes the DSBI enzyme is preferably present on a plasmid which is capable of integration into the plastidic genome of the plant to be transformed. Here, the integration site can be chosen in such a way that the gene encoding the DSBI enzyme comes under the control of a promoter which is naturally present in the plastome or has been inserted artificially into the plastome, thus resulting in expression of the DSBI enzyme in the plastids. A further preferred embodiment ensures that the gene encoding the DSBI enzyme can later be deleted from the plastome (see hereinbelow). In addition, it is possible to create a linkage between a promoter and a DSBI enzyme by adding such a promoter in vitro upstream of the open reading frame by means of PCR techniques with which the skilled worker is familiar. The PCR product can then be used for introduction into the plant plastids. Moreover, nonfunctional parts of an expression cassette for a DSBI enzyme can be generated and amplified in E. coli when these parts undergo recombination with one another after introduction into plant plastids (for example by means of homologous recombination in overlapping regions of the nonfunctional moieties of the expression cassette), thus giving rise to a functional expression cassette.

“Recognition sequence for the directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks” (hereinbelow “DSB recognition sequence” for double-strand break recognition sequence) generally refers to those sequences which permit recognition and cleavage by a DSBI enzyme under the conditions in the plastids of the plant cell or plant used in each case. Especially preferred are DSB recognition sequences for-homing endonucleases which are encoded naturally in mitochondria or the nucleus of other organisms. Also, it is possible to use DSB recognition sequences of homing endonucleases which are derived from plastids (for example from green algae). Preferably, the DSB recognition sequence is singular in the plastidic DNA, i.e. a double-strand break is only generated at the location thus predefined. However, cases where more than one DSB recognition sequence is present in the plastome are also feasible. This is the case in particular when the DSB recognition sequence is localized in duplicated genes (for example in inverted repeats). In the latter case, more than one identical DSB recognition sequence exist, but their context is identical, so that, again, directed insertion takes place. Indeed, it is preferred that integration into all copies takes place, which also requires cleavage in all copies. DSB recognition sequences which, while occurring more than once in one plastome, are localized in the same plastomic context (for example in repeats or in gene duplications) come under the term “singular DSB recognition sequences” for the purposes of the present invention.

Preferably, the plant employed, or the cell derived therefrom, is predominantly homoplastomic or homotransplastomic with regard to the DSB recognition sequence, i.e. the predominant number of the plastidic DNA molecules present in the plastid contain this DSB recognition sequence. For the purposes of the present invention, such plants are also referred to as master plants.

In principle, two types of DSB recognition sequences can be used:

a) Natural, endogenous DSB recognition sequences

-   -   As has been demonstrated within the scope of the present         invention, the plastomes of higher plants comprise various         sequences which can act as recognition sequences for DSBI         enzymes (for example homing endonucleases), even though no such         endonucleases have been demonstrated in higher plants to date.         Such DSB recognition sequences can be identified by screening         the plastidic DNA sequence using the known DSB recognition         sequences (for example those described in Table 2). The         plastidic genome of various plants is known         (http://megasun.bch.umontreal.ca/ogmp/projects/other/cp list.         html). The sequences of the plastomes of the following have been         reported:         -   Arabidopsis thaliana (Sato S et al. (1999) DNA Res. 6             (5):283-290) (GenBank Acc. No.: AP000423; NCBI Acc. No.             NC_(—)000932)         -   Epifagus virginiana (Beechdrops; Wolfe K H et al. (1992) J             Mol Evol 35(4):304-317; NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)001568; GenBank             Acc. No.: M81884)         -   Lotus japonicus (Kato T et al. (2000) DNA Res 7(6):323-330;             NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)002694; GenBank Acc. No.:AP002983)         -   Oryza sativa (rice) (Hiratsuka J et al. (1989) Mol Gen Genet             217(2-3):185-194; NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)001320; GenBank Acc.             No: X15901),         -   Marchantia polymorpha (Liverwort; Ohyama K et al. (1988) J             Mol Biol 203(2):281-298; Yamano Y et al. (1984) Nucl Acids             Res 12(11):4621-4624; GenBank Acc. No.: X04465 and Y00686;             NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)001319)         -   Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) (GenBank Acc. No.: Z00044 and             S54304; NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)001879; Shinozaki K et             al. (1986) EMBO J 5:2043-2049)         -   Oenothera elata ssp. hookeri (Monterey evening primrose;             GenBank Acc. No.: AJ271079; NCBI Acc. No.: NC_(—)002693;             Hupfer H et al. (2000) Mol Gen Genet 263(4):581-585)         -   Medicago truncatula (Gen Bank Acc. No.: AC093544)         -   Pinus thunbergii (black pine; Tsudzuki J et al. (1994) Curr             Genet 26(2):153-158; NCBI Acc. No.:NC_(—)001631; GenBank             Acc. No.: D17510)         -   Spinacia oleracea (GenBank Acc. No.: AJ400848 J01442 M12028             M16873 M16878 M27308 M55297×00795×00797×01724             X04131×04185×05916×06871)         -   Triticum aestivum (wheat; GenBank Acc. No.: AB042240; NCBI             Acc. No.: NC_(—)002762) and         -   Zea mays (GenBank Acc. No.: X86563; NCBI Acc. No.:             NC_(—)001666)     -   In addition, further plastomes can be sequenced in order to         identify DSB recognition sites therein. In general, it suffices         to isolate highly-conserved regions from the plastome by PCR         methods with which the skilled worker is familiar and to         sequence these regions only.     -   Furthermore, it is possible to determine natural, endogenous DSB         recognition sites experimentally, for example by isolating the         plastidic DNA (for example by the method of Mariac P et         al. (2000) BioTechniques 28:110-113), amplifying the plastidic         genome fragments to be taken into consideration by means of PCR         or by using synthetic fragments and carrying out a restriction         analysis with the DSBI enzyme in question. This restriction         analysis is preferably carried out under conditions as they         prevail in the plastid of a higher plant.

Moreover, the endogenous DSB recognition sequences for natural homing endonucleases which have been identified and described in Table 1 within the scope of the present invention are located in the conserved regions of the plastome so that—in particular taking into consideration the given variability, with regard to their respective recognition sequences, of the homing endonucleases mentioned in each case—it can be assumed that these recognition sequences are found virtually universally in all the plastomes of higher plants. The positions shown in Table 1 reveal in each case the sequence stated and the reverse-complementary sequence, since all of the recognition regions shown in Table 1 are localized in the inverted repeat of the plastidic genome. Homing endonucleases which are especially preferred among those mentioned in Table 1 are I-CpaI, I-CeuI, I-ChuI, I-CpaII and I-CreI.

-   -   The recognition sequences identified thus can be used for the         insertion of foreign DNA by generating a double-strand break by         introducing the corresponding DSBI enzyme. If the DSB         recognition sequence were to be located in a highly-conserved         region within a gene of the organelle genome, the foreign DNA is         preferably inserted in the form of a self-splicing intron, which         allows the reconstitution of the mRNA of the affected gene (see         hereinbelow).

The skilled worker is furthermore familiar with methods in which any endogenous sequence can act as recognition sequence for chimeric, mutated or artificial endonucleases, by subjecting their DNA recognition region to directed modification, for example by modification of a zinc finger domain fused to an endonuclease domain, or by modification of the RNA sequence of a group II intron RNA/protein complex (see hereinabove; WO 96/06166, Bibikova M et al. (2001) Mol Cell Biol 21:289-297). Position in Position in Position Position in the wheat the rice Position in in the Published DSB Sequence the tobacco plastome plastome the maize Arabidopsis DSBI recognition in the plastome Acc. Acc. plastome plastome enzyme sequence plastome Acc. Z00044 AB042240 X159019 Acc. X86563 Acc. AP000423 I-DmoI ATGCGCGCCGGAACT GTGCGGGTCGGAACTT c(108281- 118010- 117846- 121617- 131977- TACCCGGCAAGGCAT ACCCGACAAGGAAT 108310) 118039 117875 121646 132006 134316- c(96855- c(97243- c(101091- c(106643- 134345 96884) 97272) 101120) 106672) I-CpaI CGATCCTAAGGTAGC CGGTCCTAAGGTAGCG 108263- 96837- 97224- 101073- 106625- GAAATTCA AAATTCC 108285 96859 97246 101095 106647 c(134341- c(118035- c(117871- c(121642- c(132002- 134363) 118057) 117893) 121664) 132024) I-CeuI CGTAACTATAACGGT CGTAACTATAACGGTC c(134346- c(118040- c(117876- 101062- c(132007- CCTAAGGTAGCGAA CTAAGGTAGCGAA 134374) 118068) 117904) 101090 132035) 108252- 96826- 97214- c(121647- 106614- 108280 96854 97242 121675) 106642 I-ChuI GAAGGTTTGGCACCT GAAGGTTTGGCACCTC 108832- 97405- 97792- 101641- 107194- CGATGTCGGCTCATC GATGTCGGCTCTTC 108861 97434 97821 101670 107223 c(133765- c(117460- c(117297- c(121067- c(131426- 133794) 117489) 117326) 121096) 131455) I-CpaII CCCGGCTAACTCTGT ATCGGCTAACTCTGTG c(139398- c(123374- c(123351- c(127108- c(137169- GCCAG CCAG 139417) 123393) 123370) 127127) 137188) 103209- 91501- 91748- 95610- 101461- 103228 91520 91767 95629 101480 I-CreI CTGGGTTCAAAACGT CTGGGTTCAGAACGTC 108925- 97498- 97885- deviating 107287- CGTGAGACAGTTTGG GTGAGACAGTTCGG 108954 97527 97914 sequence; 107316 c(133672- c(117367- c(112704- ctgggttcagaac c(131333- 133701) 117396) 117233) gtcgtgagacgtt 131363) cgg c(120975- 121003) 101734- 101762 I-SceI TACCCTGTTATCCCT CAGCCTGTTATCCCTA c(108804- c(97377- c(97741- c(101590- c(107143- AGCGTAACT GAGTAACT 108781) 97354) 97764) 101613) 107166) 133822- 117516- 117354- 121124- 131483- 133845 117540 117377 121147 131506

Tab 1: Preferred endogenous cleavage sites in the plastidic genomes of tobacco, wheat, rice, maize and Arabidopsis. c=complementary. Acc. No: GenBank Accession Number (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/).

-   -   Singular cleavage sites of restriction endonucleases also exist         in the plastidic genome. However, they are usually located in         less highly-conserved regions and can therefore not necessarily         be exploited universally in all plant species. The following may         be mentioned by way of example:     -   a) With the sequence GGCCTTTATGGCC the enzyme SfiI has a         singular recognition site in the plastidic genome of Arabidopsis         (GenBank Acc. No.: AP000423) at position 40846-40858.     -   b) In the plastidic genome of maize (GenBank Acc. No.: X86563),         there is a singular cleavage site for the enzyme AscI at         position 42130-42137, with the sequence GGCGCGCC.     -   c) In the plastidic genome of rice (GenBank Acc. No.: X159019),         there is a singular cleavage site for the enzyme SgfI at         position 77309-77316, with the sequence GCGATCGC, and for the         enzyme AscI at position 39776-39783 with the sequence GGCGCGCC.     -   d) In the plastidic genome of tobacco (Accession Z00044), there         is in each case a singular cleavage_site for the enzyme SfiI at         position 42475-42487, with the sequence GGCCTTTATGGCC, for the         enzyme SgrI at position 78522-78529, with the sequence CACCGGCG,         and for the enzyme PmeI at position 120895-120902, with the         sequence GTTTAAAC.     -   e) In the plastidic genome of wheat (Accession AB042240), there         is in each case a singular cleavage site for the enzyme PmeI at         position 59331-59338, with the sequence GTTTAAAC, a singular         cleavage site for the enzymes NarI, KanI, EheI and BbeI at         position 41438-41443, with the recognition sequence GGCGCC, and         a recognition region for the enzyme SfiI at position         112656-112668, with the sequence GGCCCAGGGGGCC.     -   All these plants with endogenous, natural DSB recognition         sequences constitute, in a manner of speaking, naturally         occurring master plants. In them, the DSB recognition sequence         is naturally present in homoplastomic form. This eliminates the         need for the introduction and selection of artificial DSB         recognition sequences.         b) Artificially Introduced DSB Recognition Sequences     -   The skilled worker realizes that the recognition region for a         rare enzyme introduced into a master plant need not be of         natural origin. In principle, any recognition sequence of any         DSBI enzyme can be inserted at any position of the plastidic         DNA. The preparation is preferably carried out using a construct         for inserting the DSB recognition sequence (hereinbelow DSBR         construct). Preferably, the DSBR construct comprises a selection         marker to facilitate the selection of transplastomic plants with         the successfully inserted DSB recognition sequence, which         selection is required for generating suitable master plants. The         skilled worker is familiar with a variety of selection markers         which make possible selection of plastids (see hereinbelow).         aada, nptII or BADH are preferred, with aadA being especially         preferred. Selection is carried out for example with the aid of         the “segregation and sorting” process, with which the skilled         worker is familiar (described by way of example in Example 4).         The selection marker is preferably constructed in such a way         that a subsequent deletion from the plastome is made possible.         Such methods are known to the skilled worker and described         hereinbelow.     -   Thus, it is preferred first to generate a plant which is         homotransplastomic with regard to the inserted DSB recognition         sequence and which has a DSB recognition sequence in all or the         predominant number of the plastids of the plant in question.         Such plants can advantageously be employed as master plants.     -   In addition to the selection marker, the DSBR construct may         comprise further sequences. These may contain for example         further regulatory elements for the expression of the insertion         sequences to be introduced subsequently. In a preferred         embodiment, the selection marker introduced within the construct         for insertion of the DSB recognition sequence is deleted after         obtaining the homoplastomic master plant by methods known to the         skilled worker (see hereinbelow).     -   In a preferred embodiment, the DSBR construct comprises, for         making possible a site-specific insertion, further flanking         sequences at at least one, preferably at both sides of the DSB         recognition sequence, which flanking sequences have sufficient         length and homology with corresponding target sequences in the         plastome to ensure site-specific insertion by means of         homologous recombination.

Owing to the large number of the DSBI enzymes with defined recognition sequences which have been described in the prior art, it is possible, and preferred, to generate master plants which have a plurality of different singular DSB recognition sequences incorporated into their plastidic genome.

The recognition sequences for the respective DSBI enzymes listed are mentioned hereinbelow in Table 2 by way of example, but not by limitation.

Table 2: Recognition sequences and source organism of the DSBI enzymes (“ˆ” shows the cleavage site of the DSBI enzyme within a recognition sequence.) DSBI Source enzyme organism Recognition sequence I-AniI Aspergillus 5′-TTGAGGAGGTT{circumflex over ( )}TCTCTGTAAAT nidulans AANNNNNNNNNNNNNNN 3′-AACTCCTCCAAAGAGACATTTAT TNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN{circumflex over ( )} I-CvuI Chlorella 5′-CTGGGTTCAAAACGTCGTGA{circumflex over ( )}GA vulgaris CAGTTTGG 3′-GACCCAAGTTTTGCAG{circumflex over ( )}CACTCT GTCAAACC I-CsmI Chlamydomonas 5′-GTACTAGCATGGGGTCAAATGTC smithii TTTCTGG I-CmoeI Chlamydomonas 5′-TCGTAGCAGCT{circumflex over ( )}CACGGTT moewusii 3′-AGCATCG{circumflex over ( )}TCGAGTGCCAA I-CreI- Chlamydomonas 5′-CTGGGTTCAAAACGTCGTGA{circumflex over ( )}GA reinhardtii CAGTTTGG 3′-GACCCAAGTTTTGCAG{circumflex over ( )}CACTCT GTCAAACC I-ChuI Chlamydomonas 5′-GAAGGTTTGGCACCTCG{circumflex over ( )}ATGTC humicola GGCTCATC 3′-CTTCCAAACCGTG{circumflex over ( )}GAGCTACAG CCGAGTA I-CpaI Chlamydomonas 5′-CGATCCTAAGGTAGCGAA{circumflex over ( )}ATT pallido- CA stigmatica 3′-GCTAGGATTCCATC{circumflex over ( )}GCTTTAA GT I-CpaII Chlamydomonas 5′-CCCGGCTAACTC{circumflex over ( )}TGTGCCAG pallido- 3′-GGGCCGAT{circumflex over ( )}TGAGACACGGTC stigmatica I-CeuI Chlamydomonas 5′-CGTAACTATAACGGTCCTAA{circumflex over ( )}GG eugametos TAGCGAA 3′-GCATTGATATTGCCAG{circumflex over ( )}GATTCC ATCGCTT I-DmoI Desulfuro- 5′-ATGCCTTGCCGGGTAA{circumflex over ( )}GTTCCG coccus GCGCGCAT mobilis 3′-TACGGAACGGCC{circumflex over ( )}CATTCAAGGC CGCGCGTA I-SceI Saccharomyces 5′-AGTTACGCTAGGGATAA{circumflex over ( )}CAGGG cerevisiae TAATATAG 3′-TCAATGCGATCCC{circumflex over ( )}TATTGTCCC ATTATATC 5′-TAGGGATAA{circumflex over ( )}CAGGGTAAT 3′-ATCCC{circumflex over ( )}TATTGTCCCATTA (“Core” sequence) I-SceII Saccharomyces 5′-TTTTGATTCTTTGGTCACCC{circumflex over ( )}TG cerevisiae AAGTATA 3′-AAAACTAAGAAACCAG{circumflex over ( )}TGGGAC TTCATAT I-SceIII Saccharomyces 5′-ATTGGAGGTTTTGGTAAC{circumflex over ( )}TATT cerevisiae TATTACC 3′-TAACCTCCAAAACC{circumflex over ( )}ATTGATAA ATAATGG I-SceIV Saccharomyces 5′-TCTTTTCTCTTGATTA{circumflex over ( )}GCCCTA cerevisiae ATCTACG 3′-AGAAAAGAGAAC{circumflex over ( )}TAATCGGGAT TAGATGC I-SceV Saccharomyces 5′-AATAATTTTCT{circumflex over ( )}TCTTAGTAATG cerevisiae CC 3′-TTATTAAAAGAAGAATCATTA{circumflex over ( )}C GG I-SceVI Saccharomyces 5′-GTTATTTAATG{circumflex over ( )}TTTTAGTAGTT cerevisiae GG 3′-CAATAAATTACAAAATCATCA{circumflex over ( )}A CC I-SceVII Saccharomyces 5′-TGTCACATTGAGGTGCACTAGTT cerevisiae ATTAC PI-SceI Saccharomyces 5′-ATCTATGTCGGGTGC{circumflex over ( )}GGAGAAA cerevisiae GAGGTAAT 3′-TAGATACAGCC{circumflex over ( )}CACGCCTCTTT CTCCATTA F-SceI Saccharomyces 5′-GATGCTGTAGGC{circumflex over ( )}ATAGGCTTGG cerevisiae TT 3′-CTACGACA{circumflex over ( )}TCCGTATCCGAACC AA F-SceII Saccharomyces 5′-CTTTCCGCAACA{circumflex over ( )}GTAAAATT cerevisiae 3′-GAAAGGCG{circumflex over ( )}TTGTCATTTTAA I-LlaI Lactococcus 5′-CACATCCATAAC{circumflex over ( )}CATATCATTT lactis TT 3′-GTGTAGGTATTGGTATAGTAA{circumflex over ( )}A AA I-MsoI Monomastix 5′-CTGGGTTCAAAACGTCGTGA{circumflex over ( )}GA species CAGTTTGG 3′-GACCCAAGTTTTGCAG{circumflex over ( )}CACTCT GTCAAACC I-NanI Naegleria 5′-AAGTCTGGTGCCA{circumflex over ( )}GCACCCGC andersoni 3′-TTCAGACC{circumflex over ( )}ACGGTCGTGGGCG I-NitI Naegleria 5′-AAGTCTGGTGCCA{circumflex over ( )}GCACCCGC italica 3′-TTCAGACC{circumflex over ( )}ACGGTCGTGGGCG I-NjaI Naegleria 5′-AAGTCTGGTGCCA{circumflex over ( )}GCACCCGC jamiesoni 3′-TTCAGACC{circumflex over ( )}ACGGTCGTGGGCG I-PakI Pseudendo- 5′-CTGGGTTCAAAACGTCGTGA{circumflex over ( )}GA clonium CAGTTTGG akinetum 3′-GACCCAAGTTTTGCAG{circumflex over ( )}CACTCT GTCAAACC I-PorI Pyrobaculum 5′-GCGAGCCCGTAAGGGT{circumflex over ( )}GTGTAC organotrophum GGG 3′-CGCTCGGGCATT{circumflex over ( )}CCCACACATG CCC I-PpoI Physarum 5′-TAACTATGACTCTCTTAA{circumflex over ( )}GGTA polycephalum GCCAAAT 3′-ATTGATACTGAGAG{circumflex over ( )}AATTCCAT CGGTTTA “Core sequence”: CTCTCTTAA{circumflex over ( )}GGTAGC GAGAG{circumflex over ( )}AATTCCATCG I-ScaI Saccharomyces 5′-TGTCACATTGAGGTGCACT{circumflex over ( )}AGT capensis TATTAC 3′-ACAGTGTAACTCCAC{circumflex over ( )}GTGATCA ATAATG I-Ssp6803I Synechocystis 5′-GTCGGGCT{circumflex over ( )}CATAACCCGAA species 3′-CAGCCCGAGTA{circumflex over ( )}TTGGGCTT PI-PfuI Pyrococcus 5′-GAAGATGGGAGGAGGG{circumflex over ( )}ACCGGA furiosus Vc1 CTCAACTT 3′-CTTCTACCCTCC{circumflex over ( )}TCCCTGGCCT GAGTTGAA PI-PfuII Pyrococcus 5′-ACGAATCCATGTGGAGA{circumflex over ( )}AGAGC furiosus Vc1 CTCTATA 3′-TGCTTAGGTACAC{circumflex over ( )}CTCTTCTCG GAGATAT PI-PkoI Pyrococcus 5′-GATTTTAGAT{circumflex over ( )}CCCTGTACC kodakaraensis 3′-CTAAAA{circumflex over ( )}TCTAGGGACATGG KOD1 PI-PkoII Pyrococcus 5′-CAGTACTACG{circumflex over ( )}GTTAC kodakaraensis 3′-GTCATG{circumflex over ( )}ATGCCAATG KOD1 PI-PspI Pyrococcus 5′-AAAATCCTGGCAAACAGCTATTA sp. T{circumflex over ( )}GGGTAT 3′-TTTTAGGACCGTTTGTCGAT{circumflex over ( )}AA TACCCATA PI-TfuI Thermococcus 5′-TAGATTTTAGGT{circumflex over ( )}CGCTATATCC fumicolans TTCC ST557 3′-ATCTAAAA{circumflex over ( )}TCCAGCGATATAGG AAGG PI-TfuII Thermococcus 5′-TAYGCNGAYACN{circumflex over ( )}GACGGYTTYT fumicolans 3′-ATRCGNCT{circumflex over ( )}RTGNCTGCCRAARA ST557 PI-ThyI Thermococcus 5′-TAYGCNGAYACN{circumflex over ( )}GACGGYTTYT hydro- 3′-ATRCGNCT{circumflex over ( )}RTGNCTGCCRAARA thermalis PI-TliI Thermococcus 5′-TAYGCNGAYACNGACGG{circumflex over ( )}YTTYT litoralis 3′-ATRCGNCTRTGNC{circumflex over ( )}TGCCRAARA PI-TliII Thermococcus 5′-AAATTGCTTGCAAACAGCTATTA litoralis CGGCTAT I-TevI Bacteriophage 5′-AGTGGTATCAAC{circumflex over ( )}GCTCAGTAGA T4 TG 3′-TCACCATAGT{circumflex over ( )}TGCGAGTCATCT AC I-TevII Bacteriophage 5′-GCTTATGAGTATGAAGTGAACAC T4 GT{circumflex over ( )}TATTC 3′-CGAATACTCATACTTCACTTGT G{circumflex over ( )}CAATAAG F-TevI Bacteriophage 5′-GAAACACAAGA{circumflex over ( )}AATGTTTAGTA T4 AANNNNNNNNNNNNNN 3′-CTTTGTGTTCTTTACAAATCATT TNNNNNNNNNNNNNN{circumflex over ( )} F-TevII Bacteriophage 5′-TTTAATCCTCGCTTC{circumflex over ( )}AGATATG T4 GCAACTG 3′-AAATTAGGAGCGA{circumflex over ( )}AGTCTATAC CGTTGAC

Also comprised are deviations (degenerations) of the recognition sequence which nevertheless continue to make possible recognition and cleavage by the DSBI enzyme in question. Such deviations also in connection with different framework conditions such as, for example, calcium or magnesium concentrations—have been described (Argast G M et al. (1998) J Mol Biol 280: 345-353). Furthermore comprised are core sequences of these recognition sequences. It is known that the inner portions of the recognition sequences also suffice for an induced double-strand break and that the outer portions are not necessarily relevant, but may have an effect on the cleavage efficiency. Thus, for example, an 18 bp core sequence can be defined for I-SceI. The term “DSB recognition sequence” thus also comprises all essentially identical recognition sequences. Essentially identical recognition sequences refers to those recognition sequences which, while deviating from the recognition sequence identified as being optimal for the enzyme in question, still permit cleavage by the same.

Various localization sites (in the case of already existing endogenous DSB recognition sequences) or integration sites (in the case of artificially generated DSB recognition sequences) are possible for the DSB recognition sequence. Examples which may be mentioned are:

-   a) Localization (integration)-in a transcriptionally silent region     -   Localization (integration) of the DSB recognition sequence in a         transcriptionally silent region of the plastidic genome         (intergenic region) is the preferred embodiment. In this manner,         an adverse effect on the plastids' functions can be largely         ruled out. In this context, it must be noted that, if         appropriate, suitable regulatory elements such as promoters and         the like must also be introduced for expression to take place.) -   b) Localization (integration) in a transcriptionally active but     noncoding (intercistronic) region     -   The advantage of this localization (integration) is that the         insertion sequence to be introduced is thereby ultimately         encoded in a plastidic operon and promoter(s)/terminator(s) need         not be introduced separately, but those present endogenously at         this locus can, but do not have to, be utilized. In such a case,         only ribosome binding sites should be present at a suitable         distance upstream of the coding region of the foreign genes to         be introduced.     -   However, it is also feasible that an intergenic region is not         entirely transcriptionally silent, for example because         transcriptional termination from an adjacent gene or operon is         only inefficient.) -   c) Localization (integration) in a transcriptionally active coding     region.     -   The localization (integration) described under a) and b) of the         DSB recognition sequence at a noncoding locus has the advantage         that the insertion of the foreign DNA is highly likely not to         affect the function of the plastidic genome. However, noncoding         regions are less well conserved than coding regions. In order to         have available as universal a method as possible which works in         many plant species, the DSB recognition sequence (and therefore         the insertion sequence) is, in an especially preferred         embodiment, localized in the coding sequence of an existing         gene. Destruction of the gene function by introducing the DSB         recognition sequence (in the case of an artificially generated         DSB recognition sequence), or the introduction of the insertion         sequence, is prevented inventively, in a preferred variant of         this embodiment, by introducing the DSB recognition sequence, or         the insertion sequence, within an intron. In this manner, the         complete coding mRNA is regenerated at the site of integration         by splicing the pre-RNA of the gene.

DSB recognition sequences which do not occur naturally in the plastidic DNA can be introduced into the plastidic DNA in various ways. Examples which may be mentioned are:

-   a) Integration by means of double crossover     -   Integration into the plastidic genome is preferably carried out         with the aid of the above-described methods with which the         skilled worker is generally familiar (double crossover). -   b) Integration using natural, endogenous DSB recognition sequences -   c) Integration using recombinases and corresponding recognition     sequences.

Even though the procedure for inserting an artifical DSB recognition sequence into the plastidic DNA is relatively complicated and, in case a), corresponds to the plastid transformation method currently described in the prior art, this complicated procedure only has to be carried out once. The resulting homotransplastomic master plant can then be employed for any number of different subsequent transformations using the method according to the invention, which makes possible a substantial increase in the transformation efficiency: instead of having to carry out the conventional selection process for a homotransplastomic plant every single time, it only has to be carried out once in the present context.

“Deactivation of the functionality” of a DSB recognition sequence means that, owing to insertion of the insertion sequence at or near the position of the double-strand break, the DSB recognition sequence is destroyed, i.e. the corresponding DSBI enzyme no longer recognizes the region and, accordingly, no longer induces a double-strand break at this position.

Construction of the transformation construct with the insertion sequence

Using one of the above-described master plants or cells derived from them which contain a natural and/or an artificially generated DSB recognition sequence in the plastome, the insertion sequence is inserted into said DSB recognition sequence within a transformation process. This is effected with the simultaneous presence of a DSBI enzyme, which recognizes one of the DSB recognition sequences in the plastome.

In its simplest form, the transformation construct consists only of the insertion sequence itself, for example of an expression cassette which is to ensure the expression of a certain gene in the plastids. The sequence-specific induction of double-strand breaks suffices to ensure that this insertion sequence is placed at this position and thus to bring about the deactivation of the DSB recognition sequence.

In a preferred embodiment, the insertion sequence comprises at least one nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. To ensure expression (transcription and/or translation), they are to be provided with regulatory elements, depending on the embodiment and the insertion site. If insertion takes place at a transcriptionally active locus, no promoter sequences are required, as described above. The sequences to be expressed are advantageously provided in any case with ribosome binding sites at a suitable distance upstream of the open reading frame, or are already equipped naturally with such sites. These regulatory sequences or parts thereof can, however, also be present naturally in the plastome or introduced into the plastidic DNA together with the DSB recognition sequence as early as in the first step, i.e. in the generation of a nonnatural master plant.

An increase of the insertion efficiency and insertion accuracy can be brought about by flanking the insertion sequence present in the transformation construct and the DSB recognition sequence by homologous sequence regions which, owing to the induced double-strand break, ensure homologous recombination. In a preferred embodiment, the insertion sequence comprises flanking homology sequences A′ and B′, the sequence to be introduced into the plastidic DNA being located between A′ and B′. The DSB recognition sequence is flanked by homology sequences A and B, respectively, the DSB recognition sequence being located between A and B. A and B can be of natural origin or have been introduced in context with the insertion of nonnatural DSB recognition sequences. A and A′ and B and B′, respectively, are sufficiently long and sufficiently homologous to one another to ensure a homologous recombination between A and A′, and B and B′, respectively.

In a further embodiment, the DSB recognition sequence is flanked merely by a homologous sequence A which has sufficient homology to a sequence A′ which flanks the insertion sequence unilaterally.

With regard to the homology sequences, “sufficient length” preferably means sequences with a length of at least 20 base pairs, preferably at least 50 base pairs, especially preferably at least 100 base pairs, very especially preferably at least 250 base pairs, most preferably at least 500 base pairs.

With regard to the homology sequences A and A′, and B and B′, respectively, “sufficient homology” preferably means sequences which have at least 70%, preferably 80%, by preference at least 90%, especially preferably at least 95%, very especially preferably at least 99%, most preferably 100% homology within these homology sequences over a length of at least 20 base pairs, preferably at least 50 base pairs, especially preferably at least 100 base pairs, very especially preferably at least 250 base pairs, most preferably at least 500 base pairs.

Homology between two nucleic acids is understood as meaning the identity of the nucleic acid sequence over in each case the entire sequence length which is calculated by alignment with the aid of the program algorithm GAP (Wisconsin Package Version 10.0, University of Wisconsin, Genetics Computer Group (GCG), Madison, USA), setting the following parameters:

-   -   Gap Weight: 12 Length Weight: 4     -   Average Match: 2,912 Average Mismatch: −2,003

Since homologous recombination is promoted by the induced double-strand break, the requirements regarding length and homology of the sequences are markedly less than is the case for example in the case of conventional homologous recombination. In this context, the homologous regions can also be markedly smaller than 250 bp. The advantage of using homology sequences is that, when A′ and B′ are different, or when only one homology sequence A′ is being used, a directed insertion of the insertion sequence into the plastidic DNA can take place.

The transformation construct or the insertion sequence preferably comprises a selection marker which makes possible the selection of transplastomic plastids (see hereinbelow), especially preferably aada, BADH or a binding-type marker. The selection marker is preferably constructed in such a way that subsequent deletion from the plastome is made possible. Such methods are known to the skilled worker and described hereinbelow.

The insertion sequence or the transformation construct preferably has the structure and sequence of an intron. As a rule, the naturally occurring introns are modified in such a manner for this purpose that they meet the requirements of the method according to the invention. Such artificial introns are especially preferred when they are to be inserted into a transcriptionally active or even coding region, for example, using a natural, endogenous DSB recognition sequence. Preferably, insertion takes place in such a way that the inserted sequence is removed completely by splicing the pre-mRNA. The RNA which has been spliced out (that is to say the artificial intron) now constitutes the mRNA, for example for the translation of proteins encoded on it. This method has further advantages:

-   -   The introns utilized show pronounced secondary folding so that a         relatively stable RNA results. The genes of interest which are         encoded in the intron can therefore be expressed at a         particularly high level, as has been demonstrated, for example,         in E. coli (Chan K Y W et al. (1988) Gene 73:295-304).     -   When the intron is integrated into a gene, the transcription of         the intron is subject to the regulatory control of the gene into         which the intron has been integrated. This is why all regulatory         elements upstream or downstream of the gene(s) of interest can         be dispensed with in the intron. The constructs can thus be kept         correspondingly small, and it is certain that transcription does         indeed work, including in the species under investigation. The         utilization of heterologous regulatory elements involves the         residual risk that these elements are not functional in the         investigated plastids of the plant species in question. The         utilization of homologous sequences can, owing to the sequence         duplication, lead to spontaneous recombination events with the         endogenous sequences and thus to instability of the organelle         genome.

Owing to the possibility of largely being able to dispense with the introduction of regulatory elements—for example by encoding the gene of interest in an intron which is inserted into a transcriptionally active plastome region—many other disadvantages of conventional plastid transformation can be avoided with the method according to the invention in this embodiment, in addition to increasing the insertion and distribution ability of the transformation constructs.

Moreover, all introns can be used when the relevant factors which mediate splicing are simultaneously expressed in the plastids or imported into them. Preferably, the splicing factors are encoded in the intron itself. Group II introns, which themselves encode at least one of the splice factors, are especially preferred in this embodiment. They include the Lactococcus Ll.ltrB intron. Likewise preferred introns are those which naturally occur in the plastids of higher plants, especially group II introns, very especially preferably introns which encode a protein, most preferably introns of the trnK genes of the plastidic genome. In the latter case, the introns from the trnk genes of the plastids from the species Arabidopsis, maize and tobacco are especially preferred.

Preferred introns are those which have a self-splicing activity which does not depend on further protein factors, or introns which utilize general factors for splicing which are universally present, and therefore also in plastids, and also introns which themselves encode factors required for splicing. These introns include, for example,

-   a) the group I intron from Tetrahymena (GenBank Acc. No.: X54512;     Kruger K et al. (1982) Cell 31:147-157; Roman J and Woodson S     A (1998) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:2134-2139) -   b) the group II rIl intron from Scenedesmus obliquus (GenBank Acc.     No.: X17375.2 nucleotides 28831 to 29438; Hollander V and KUck     U (1999) Nucl Acids Res 27: 2339-2344; Herdenberger F et al. (1994)     Nucl Acids Res 22: 2869-2875; Kuck U et al. (1990) Nucl Acids Res     18:2691-2697). -   c) the Ll.LtrB intron (GenBank Acc. No.: U50902 nucleotides 2854 to     5345) -   d) the Arabidopsis trnK intron (GenBank Acc. No.: AP000423,     complementary nucleotides 1752 to 4310) -   e) the maize trnK intron (GenBank Acc. No.: X86563, complementary     nucleotides 1421 to 3909) -   f) the tobacco trnK intron (GenBank Acc. No.: Z00044, complementary     nucleotides 1752 to 4310).

Not only heterologous introns, but also introns which naturally occur in the plastids of the plant in question can be utilized. Heterologous introns—for example heterologous trnk introns—are preferred to avoid instabilities brought about by sequence duplication. In a preferred embodiment, introns which occur naturally in the plastids of the plant in question are modified in such a way that they have a sequence homology of less than 95%, preferably 80%, especially preferably 70% with the sequence of the starting intron, while still being able to retain their function.

In a further preferred embodiment, a factor which brings about splicing of the intron in question is available in trans, i.e. it is not encoded in the intron itself. If this factor is not naturally present in the plastid in question, but first has to be introduced into it, such a procedure can be effected in various ways with which the skilled worker is familiar. Examples which may be mentioned are the introduction of a suitable coding sequence, which is capable of expression, into the plastome or the introduction into the nuclear DNA; in the latter case, the factor is preferably fused with a PLS.

Especially preferred introns are those which naturally encode a DSB enzyme (in particular a homing endonuclease). Especially preferred is the intron Cp.LSU2 from Chlamydomonas pallidostigmatica, which encodes the enzyme I-CpaI (Turmel M et al. (1995) Mol Biol Evol 12:533-545). Also preferred are the group-II introns from yeast mitochondria.

In a preferred embodiment, the intron sequence is adapted to suit the insert site so that they can splice at this locus. In the case of group I introns, this adaptation can relate to the internal guide sequence (IGS) and in the case of the group II introns the exon binding sequence (EBS) I and/or II.

In the case of the maize trnK intron, it must be noted that the protein encoded by the trnK intron, which also comprises the maturase function, is probably not functional in its naturally encoded form without editing. It has been demonstrated that editing (His420Tyr) of the corresponding mRNA takes place in barley plastids (Vogel J et al. (1997) J Mol Biol 270:179-187). Tyrosine at position 420 of the matK protein is highly conserved. In the monocots rice and maize, too, a codon encoding His has been found at the corresponding position in the coding DNA. It can therefore be assumed that the matK transcript is also edited in those plants, as is the case in barley. Since, however, other plant species may, if appropriate, not be able to provide such RNA editing, a preferred embodiment provides that the matK gene in the maize trnk intron is already modified at DNA level by a suitable His/Tyr substitution, so that RNA editing is no longer required. For example, the sequence CATTATCATAGTGGAT of the maize trnk intron can be mutated into CATTATTATAGTGGAT.

In the case of group I introns, the splicing site is determined by the pairing of IGS with the exon of the corresponding transcript, which exon is located 5′ and/or 3′ relative to the intron (Lambowitz A M & Belfort M (1993) Annu Rev Biochem 62:587-622). Using techniques which are known to the skilled worker, such as PCR or the synthetic generation of nucleotide sequences, the IGS can be matched to any group I introns in such a way that splicing takes place at the predefined insertion site within the DSB recognition region. The modified IGS is designed in such a way that it can undergo—at least partial—base pairing with the sequences of the transcript 5′ and 3′ of the insertion site. The C. pallidostigmatica CpLSU2 intron, which encodes the homing endonuclease I-CpaI, is preferably utilized. If this intron is utilized in connection with the expression of the DSBI enzyme I-CpaI, whereby insertion of the DNA to be transformed into the 23S rDNA of the plastidic genome of higher plants results, no adaptation of the intron is necessary. Insertion takes place at a locus in the plastidic genome of higher plants which is homologous to the locus at which the intron is naturally present in C. pallidostigmatica. This intron is therefore already designed in such a way that pairings with the 51 and 31 exon can be undergone and that correct splicing in this nucleotide environment takes place. Furthermore preferred is the group I intron from Tetrahymena thermophila, where, as a 413 bp intervening sequence (IVS), it interrupts the 26S rRNA coding region (Accession V01416 J01235 nucleotides 53 to 465). The IGS with the sequence 5′-ggaggg-3′ which can be found naturally (Waring R B et al. 1985 Cell 40: 371-380; Been, M D & Cech, T R 1986 Cell 47: 207-216) can be adapted to the new insertion site by techniques with which the skilled worker is familiar. If, for example, integration into the DSB recognition site of the I-CpaI enzyme at the position identified by ˆ (cggtcctˆaagg-tagcgaaattc) is desired, the mutated, adapted IGS can, for example, have the following sequence: 5′-gggacc-3′.

In group II introns, which are mobile, further activities in addition to maturase are frequently encoded in the protein moiety of the ribonucleoprotein complex. However, these are not necessarily required for the method described and can therefore be deleted. Indeed, deletion is preferred since it makes the construct in question smaller and easier to handle. The skilled worker is familiar with a variety of options for removing such activities from the protein moiety. For example, this can be effected by generating a synthetic gene which comprises only the desired regions, or by suitable PCR methods.

Self-splicing group II introns have a conserved structure and generally consist of 6 different domains. Domain I comprises the exon binding sites (EBS1 and EBS2) which, during the splicing procedure, interact with the exon located 5′ from the intron. In addition, an interaction between the “δ region” (located immediately 51 of EBS1) and the “δ′ region” at the 31 exon takes place (Lambowitz A M & Belfort M (1993) Annu Rev Biochem 62:587-622; Michel F & Ferat J L (1995) Annu Rev Biochem 64:435-461). These sequences can be adapted by techniques with which the skilled worker is familiar, such as synthetic generation of the introns or suitable PCR methods, in each case in such a way that correct choice of the splicing sites at the insert site chosen in the DSB recognition region is ensured. This is done in such a way that the regions mentioned are modified so that base pairings with the corresponding sequences upstream (intron binding sequences, IBS) and downstream (δ′) of the artificial insertion sequence can be undergone. If, for example, cggtcctaaggtˆagcgaaattc is chosen as insertion site (ˆ) for the Ll.LtrB intron in the I-CpaI recognition region, the δ region and the EBS1 region can, for example, adopt the sequence TCGCTACCTTAG (natural sequence: TTATGGTTGTG), and EBS2 for example the sequence GACCG (natural sequence: ATGTG). If the Arabidopsis thaliana trnK intron is selected, the δ region and the EBS1 region can, for example, adopt the sequence CGCTACCTTAGG (natural sequence: AATGTTAAAAA), assuming the same insertion site as indicated for the Ll.LtrB intron.

If the DSB recognition sequence takes the form of a natural, endogenous recognition sequence of a homing endonuclease, a selected intron is preferably inserted at the site of the DSB recognition region at which the intron belonging to the homing endonuclease in question can also be found naturally.

The artificial insertion site of an intron in the DSB recognition site is preferably chosen such that 5′ and 3′ of the intron inserted as many bases as possible correspond to those of the natural insertion site of the intron in question and that the DSB recognition sequence is no longer functional after insertion of the intron. Very especially preferably, the nucleotide located in each case immediately upstream or downstream of the insert site of the intron corresponds to that at the natural insertion site.

In an especially preferred embodiment, the intron is flanked by homology sequences in order to make possible a directed insertion. Here, the homology sequences are—as described above—homologous to the sequences flanking the DSB recognition sequence and thus make possible an accurate insertion.

The invention therefore furthermore also relates to DNA constructs comprising at least one nucleic acid and intron sequence elements which are capable of ensuring, in a ribonucleic acid sequence derived from said DNA construct, the deletion of the ribonucleic acid fragment encoding said nucleic acid sequence, where said nucleic acid sequence is heterologous with regard to said intron sequence elements.

In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence is flanked at least by a splice acceptor sequence and a splice donor sequence.

In a further embodiment, the DNA construct comprises, at the 5′ and the 3′ end, sequences H1 and H2, respectively, which have sufficient length and homology with plastid sequences H1′ and H2′, respectively, to ensure homologous recombination between H1 and H1′, and H2 and H2′, respectively, and thus insertion of the H1- and H2-flanked sequence into the plastome.

The invention furthermore relates to a transgenic plastidic DNA comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence and intron sequence elements which are capable of ensuring, in a ribonucleic acid sequence derived from said transgenic plastidic DNA, the deletion of said ribonucleic acid fragment encoding said nucleic acid sequence, where said nucleic acid sequence is heterologous with regard to said intron sequence elements. In a preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence is flanked by at least one splice acceptor sequence and one splice donor sequence.

To construct a transformation vector, the insertion sequence or the transformation construct can be cloned into a standard vector such as pBluescript or pUC18. In a preferred embodiment, the insertion sequence or the transformation construct is applied as a linear or linearized DNA molecule.

Preferably, only the portion of transformation vector which comprises the insertion sequence or the transformation construct with, if appropriate, homology sequences, selection marker and/or the expression cassette for the DSBI enzyme is applied. If all or some of the homology sequences are dispensed with, the linearized DNA molecule is preferably obtained by digestion with restriction endonucleases which generate single-stranded DNA overhangs at one or at both ends which are compatible with those generated by the DSBI enzyme in the plastidic DNA.

In a preferred embodiment, the transformation vector can comprise elements (for example a plastidic OR1 (origin of replication)), which make it possible for the vector autonomously to replicate in the plastid or stably to exist in the plastids as extrachromosomal DNA molecule, before being integrated into the plastidic DNA. Such methods are known to the skilled worker (U.S. Pat. No. 5,693,507; U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,479; WO 99/10513). This method is preferred since it increases the copy number of the insertion sequences which is available for integration in the plastid.

One of the above-described constructs can be introduced into the plastids of a suitable master plant using one of the methods described. Microinjection is preferred, particle bombardment is particularly preferred.

Cloning, Expression, Selection and Transformation Methods

“Expression cassette” means—for example regarding the expression cassette for the DSBI enzyme—those constructions in which the DNA to be expressed is in operable linkage with at least one genetic control element which makes possible or regulates its expression (i.e. transcription and/or translation). In this context, expression can be, for example, stable or transient, constitutive or inducible. A variety of direct methods (for example transfection, particle bombardment, microinjection) or indirect methods (for example agrobacterial infection, viral infection) stated hereinbelow is available to the skilled worker for the introduction, and these methods will be stated hereinbelow.

An operable linkage is generally understood as meaning an arrangement in which a genetic control sequence can exert its function with regard to a nucleic acid sequence, for example encoding a DSBI enzyme. Function, in this context, can mean for example the control of the expression, i.e. transcription and/or translation, of the nucleic acid sequence, for example encoding a DSBI enzyme. Control, in this context, comprises for example initiating, increasing, governing or suppressing the expression, i.e. transcription and, if appropriate, translation. Governing, in turn, can be tissue and/or timing-specific. It may also be inducible, for example by certain chemicals, stress, pathogens and the like.

An operable linkage is understood as meaning for example the sequential arrangement of a promoter, of the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed—for example encoding a DSBI enzyme—and, if appropriate, further regulatory elements such as, for example, a terminator in such a way that each of the regulatory elements can fulfill its function upon expression of the nucleic acid sequence, for example encoding a DSBI enzyme. In this context, operable linkage need not necessarily exist on the transformation constructs themselves. Operable linkage can also result as a consequence of the insertion into the nuclear or plastidic DNA, where the regulatory elements are already present in the nuclear or plastidic DNA. In this respect, the regulatory elements can be naturally present or else introduced in a preceding step, for example when introducing an artificial DSB recognition sequence.

Direct linkage in the chemical sense is not necessarily required in this context. Genetic control sequences such as, for example, enhancer sequences, can also exert their function on the target sequence from positions which are further away, or indeed from other DNA molecules. Preferred arrangements are those in which the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed—for example encoding a DSBI enzyme—is positioned behind a sequence which acts as promoter, so that the two sequences are bonded covalently with one another. Preferably, the distance between the promoter sequence and the nucleic acid sequence—for example encoding a DSBI enzyme—is less than 200 base pairs, especially preferably less than 100 base pairs, very especially preferably less than 50 base pairs.

The skilled worker is familiar with a variety of routes to obtain one of the transformation constructs according to the invention, vectors comprising them or one of the expression cassettes. They can be prepared by means of customary recombination and cloning techniques as are described for example in Maniatis T, Fritsch E F and Sambrook J, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989) and in Silhavy T J, Berman M L and Enquist L W, Experiments with Gene Fusions, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1984) and in Ausubel F M et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Assoc. and Wiley Interscience (1987). The direct fusion of a nucleic acid sequence which acts as promoter and a nucleotide sequence to be expressed—for example encoding a DSBI enzyme—is preferred.

The term “genetic control sequences” is to be understood in the broad sense and refers to all those sequences which influence the generation or the function of an expression cassette or transformation vector. Genetic control sequences ensure transcription and, if appropriate, translation in the nucleus (or cytoplasm) or plastids. Preferably, the expression cassettes according to the invention comprise a promoter 5′ upstream of the respective nucleic acid sequence to be expressed and a terminator sequence as additional genetic control sequence 3′ downstream, and, if appropriate, further customary regulatory elements, in each case in operable linkage with the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed.

Genetic control sequences are described, for example, by “Goeddel;. Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990)” or “Gruber and Crosby, in: Methods in Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnolgy, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., eds.: Glick and Thompson, Chapter 7, 89-108” and the references cited therein.

Examples of such control sequences are sequences to which the inductors or repressors bind and thus regulate the expression of nucleic acid. The natural regulation of these sequences may still be present before the actual structural genes, in addition to these novel control sequences or instead of these sequences, and, if appropriate, can have been genetically modified so that the natural regulation has been switched off and gene expression enhanced. However, the expression cassette can also be simpler in structure, that is to say no additional regulatory signals are inserted before the abovementioned genes and the natural promoter together with its regulation is not removed. Instead, the natural control sequence is mutated in such a way that regulation no longer takes place and gene expression is enhanced. These modified promoters can also be placed by themselves before the natural genes in order to increase the activity.

Depending on the host organism or the starting organism described in greater detail hereinbelow, which is converted into a genetically modified or transgenic organism by the introduction of the expression cassettes or vectors, different control sequences are suitable.

Promoters which are suitable for nuclear expression (for example of a viral/bacteriophage RNA polymerase or of a DSBI enzyme with plastidic transit peptide) are, in principle, all those which are capable of governing the expression of genes, in particular foreign genes, in plants.

Suitable promoters are those which make possible constitutive expression in plants (Benfey et al. (1989) EMBO J. 8:2195-2202). In particular, a plant promoter or a promoter derived from a plant virus is used by preference. Especially preferred is the promoter of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S transcript (Franck et al. (1980) Cell 21:285-294; Odell et al. (1985) Nature 313:810-812; Shewmaker et al. (1985) Virology 140:281-288; Gardner et al. 1986, Plant Mol. Biol. 6, 221-228) or the 19S CaMV promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,605 and WO 84/02913). As is known, this promoter comprises different recognition sequences for transcriptional effectors which, in their totality, lead to largely permanent and constitutive expression of the gene introduced (Benfey et al. (1989) EMBO J 8:2195-2202). A further suitable constitutive promoter is the “Rubisco small subunit (SSU)” promotor (U.S. Pat. No. 4,962,028). A further example of a suitable promoter is the leguminB promoter (GenBank Acc. No.: X03677). Examples of further preferred constitutive promoters are the Agrobacterium nopaline synthase promoter, the TR dual promoter, the Agrobacterium OCS (octopine synthase) promoter, the ubiquitin promoter (Holtorf S et al. (1995) Plant Mol Biol 29:637-649), the promoters of the vacuolar ATPase subunits, the FBPaseP promoter (WO 98/18940) or the promoter of a proline-rich protein from wheat (WO 91/13991). Other suitable constitutive promoters which are preferred for the purposes of the present invention are the Super promoter (Ni M et al. (1995) Plant J 7:661-676; U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,646) and the nitrilase-1 promoter of the Arabidopsis nit1 gene (GenBankAcc. No.: Y07648.2, nucleotides 2456 to 4340; Hillebrand H et al. (1998) Plant Mol Biol 36 (1):89-99; Hillebrand H et al. (1996) Gene 170(2):197-200).

Promoters which are preferred are inducible promoters, especially preferably chemically inducible promoters (Aoyama T and Chua N H (1997) Plant J 11:605-612; Caddick M X et al. (1998) Nat. Biotechnol 16:177-180; Review: Gatz (1997) Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 48:89-108) by means of which expression can be controlled at a particular point in time. Examples which may be mentioned are the PRP1 promoter (Ward et al. (1993) Plant Mol Biol 22:361-366), a salicylic-acid-inducible promoter (WO 95/19443), a benzenesulfonamide-inducible promoter (EP-A-0388186), a tetracyclin-inducible promoter (Gatz et al. (1992) Plant J 2:397-404), an abscisic-acid-inducible promoter (EP-A 335 528), an ethanol-inducible promoter (Salter MG et al. (1998) Plant J. 16:127-132), the heavy-metal-inducible metallothionein I promoter (Amini S et al. (1986) Mol Cell Biol 6:2305-2316), the steroid-inducible MMTV LTR promoter (Izant J G et al. (1985) Science 229:345-352) and a cyclohexanone-inducible promoter (WO 93/21334). Especially preferred is the inducible expression of a PLS/DSBI enzyme fusion protein in the nucleus. Inducible promoters also comprise those which are capable of regulation by certain repressor proteins (for example tet, lac). Such repressor proteins can be translocated into the plastids in fusion with PLS, where they regulate the expression of certain genes under the control of suitable promoters. In the plastids, the repressor binds to an artificial repressor binding site which has been introduced into the plastome and can thus repress the expression of the downstream gene (cf. WO 95/25787). In this manner it is possible, for example, to induce the expression of a plastid-encoded DSBI enzyme when required, or to repress it until the point in time at which expression is desired.

Other promoters which are preferred are those which are induced by biotic or abiotic stress such as, for example, the pathogen-inducible promoter of the PRP1 gene (Ward et al., Plant Mol Biol 1993, 22: 361-366), the heat-inducible tomato hsp70 promoter or hsp80 promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 5,187,267), the chill-inducible potato alpha-amylase promoter (WO 96/12814) or the wounding-induced pinII promoter (EP-A 0 375 091).

In an especially preferred embodiment, the nucleic acid which encodes the DSBI enzyme is, above all, expressed under the control of an inducible promoter. A controlled expression capable of being governed is thus obtained, and any problems caused by expressing a DSBI enzyme constitutively are avoided.

Advantageous control sequences for the expression cassettes or vectors according to the invention comprise viral, bacteriophage or bacterial promoters such as cos, tac, trp, tet, phoA, tat, lpp, lac, laciq, T7, T5, T3, gal, trc, ara, SP6, %-PR or λ-PL promoter. They are preferably employed in combination with the expression of the respective, corresponding RNA polymerase.

The expression in plastids can be effected using plastid promoters and/or transcription regulation elements. Examples which may be mentioned, but not by way of limitation, are the RNA polymerase promoter (WO 97/06250) or the promoters described in WO 00/07431, U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,402, WO 97/06250, WO 98/55595, WO 99/46394, WO 01/42441 and WO 01/07590. The rpo B promoter element, the atpB promoter element, the clpP promoter element (see also WO 99/46394) or the 16S rDNA promoter element should be mentioned. In this context, the promoter can also have a polycistronic “operon” assigned to it (EP-A 1 076 095; WO 00/20611). Systems in which a nonplant (for example viral) RNA polymerase is imported into the plastid using plastidic transit peptides and specifically induces, in the plastid, the expression transgenic sequences which are under the control of the RNA polymerase recognition sequences and have previously been inserted into the plastidic DNA have also been described (WO 95/16783; U.S. Pat. No. 5,925,806; U.S. Pat. No. 5,575,198).

In addition to the abovementioned promoters, the following can also be preferably used:

-   a) the PrbcL promoter (SEQ ID NO: 44) -   b) the Prps16 promoter (SEQ ID NO: 50) -   c) the Prrn16 promoter (SEQ ID NO: 46)

In an especially preferred embodiment, NEP promoters are employed. These are promoters which are functional in plastids and are recognized by the nuclear-encoded plastidic RNA polymerases (NEP). The following are preferred: Prrn-62; Pycf2-1577; PatpB-289; Prps2-152; Prps16-107; Pycf1-41; PatpI-207; PclpP-511; PclpP-173 and PaccD-129 (wo 97/06250; Hajdukiewicz P T J et al. (1997) EMBO J 16:4041-4048).

The following are especially preferred:

-   a) the PaccD-129 promoter of the tobacco accD gene (WO 97/06250; SEQ     ID NO: 47) -   b) the PclpP-53 promoter of the clpP gene as highly active NEP     promoter in chloroplasts (WO 97/06250; SEQ ID NO: 48) -   c) the Prrn-62 promoter of the rrn gene (SEQ ID NO: 49) -   d) the Prps16-107 promoter of the rps16 gene (SEQ ID NO: 45) -   e) the PatpB/E-290 promoter of the tobacco atpB/E gene (Kapoor S et     al. (1997) Plant J 11:327-337) (SEQ ID NO: 51) -   f) the PrpoB-345 promoter of the rpoB gene (Liere K & Maliga     P (1999) EMBO J 18: 249-257) (SEQ ID NO: 52)

In general, all those promoters which belong to class III (Hajdukiewicz P T J et al. (1997) EMBO J 16:4041-4048) and all fragments of the class II promoters which control the initiation of transcription by NEP can be utilized in this preferred embodiment. Such promoters or promoter moieties are not particularly highly conserved. ATAGAATAAA is given as consensus near the transcription initiation site of NEP promoters (Hajdukiewicz P T J et al (1997) EMBO J 16:4041-4048).

Normally, genes are surrounded by regulatory sequences which originate from the plastids of the organism to be transformed. Thus, sequence duplications which can lead to instabilities owing to spontaneous, intrachromosomal homologous recombination events are generated (Heifetz P B (2000) Biochimie 82(6-7):655-666). To overcome this problem, it has been proposed to utilize heterologous regulatory sequences or to exploit regulatory units which already exist endogenously in the plastidic genome (WO 99/46394; WO 01/42441). A reduction of the homology by mutagenesis of the endogenous promoter sequence has also been described (WO 01/07590).

In principle, all natural promoters together with their regulatory sequences, such as those mentioned above, can be used for the method according to the invention. Especially preferred promoters-are those which have been isolated from prokaryotes. Very especially preferred are promoters isolated from Synechocystis or E. coli. In addition, synthetic promoters such as, for example, a synthetic promoter derived from the E. coli consensus sequence for a70 promoters 5′-TTGACA N₁₆₋₁₉ TATAAT N₃ CAT-3′,

where N represents any nucleotide (that is to say A, G, C or T) can additionally also be used advantageously. It is obvious to the skilled worker that individual or few base substitutions in the conserved regions stated are also possible without destroying the function of the promoter. The variable design of these synthetic promoters by using a variety of sequential sequences makes it possible to generate a multiplicity of promoters which lack extensive homologies, which increases the stability of the expression cassettes in the plastome in particular in the event that several promoters are required. The following, particularly preferred promoter sequences, which are derived from the abovementioned consensus sequence, may be mentioned by way of example, but not by limitation: (SEQ ID NO: 53) a) 5′-TTGACATTCACTCTTCAATTATCTATAATGATACA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 72) b) 5′-TTGACAATTTTCCTCTGAATTATATAATTAACAT-3′

It is obvious to the skilled worker that these synthetic promoters can control the expression of any genes. For example, they can be utilized for driving the expression of a selection marker, also in order to be able to select under regenerative conditions for transplastomic plants with the aid of said selection system. Examples of selection markers are enumerated further below. In addition, such synthetic promoters can be linked with any gene, for example with genes encoding antibodies, antigens or enzymes. Preferably, the expression cassettes consisting of such promoters also comprise 5′-untranslated regions (or ribosome binding sites) or 3′-noncoding regions which are detailed hereinbelow.

The invention furthermore relates to expression cassettes comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a DSBI enzyme under the control of a promoter which is functional in plant plastids, for example one of the above-described promoters. The expression cassette can comprise further elements such as, for example, transcription terminators and/or selection markers.

Genetic control sequences also comprise further promoters, promoter elements or minimal promoters which are capable of modifying the expression-controlling properties. Genetic control sequences furthermore also comprise the 5′-untranslated region (5′-UTR) or the noncoding 3′ region (3′-UTR) of genes (Eibl C (1999) Plant J 19: 1-13). It has been demonstrated that these can exert significant functions in regulating the gene expression in plastids of higher plants. In the nucleus, too, genetic control elements such as 5′-UTR, introns or 3′-UTR, can exert a function in gene expression. Thus, for example, it has been demonstrated that 5′-untranslated sequences can enhance the transient expression of heterologous genes. They can furthermore promote tissue specificity (Rouster J et al., Plant J. 1998, 15: 435-440.).

5′-UTRs and 3′-UTRs which are preferably employed in plastids are:

-   a) 5′psbA (from tobacco) (SEQ ID NO: 54) -   b) 5′rbcL including 5′ portions from the coding region of the rbcL     gene (from tobacco) (SEQ ID NO: 55); the sequence described as SEQ     ID NO: 55 has been mutated in comparison with the native sequence in     order to introduce a PagI and an NcoI cleavage site. -   c) 5′rbcLs (SEQ ID NO: 56); the sequence described by SEQ ID NO: 56     has been mutated in comparison with the native sequence in order to     introduce a PagI cleavage site. -   d) 3′psbA-1 from Synechocystis (SEQ ID NO: 57) -   e) 3′psbA from tobacco (SEQ ID NO: 58) -   f) 3′rbcL from tobacco (SEQ ID NO: 59)

Genetic control sequences, especially for expression in plastids, also comprise in particular ribosome binding sequences for initiating translation. They are usually present in the 5′-UTRs. This is especially preferred when suitable sequences are not provided by the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed or when such sequences are compatible with the expression system. Especially preferred is the use of a synthetic ribosome binding site (RBS) with the sequence 5′-GGAGG(N)₃₋₁₀ATG-3′, preferably 5′-GGAGG(N)₅ATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 60), particularly preferably 5′-GGAGGATCTCATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 61).

The expression cassette can advantageously comprise one or more what are known as enhancer sequences in operable linkage with the promoter; these enhancer sequences make possible an enhanced transgenic expression of the nucleic acid sequence. Additional advantageous sequences, such as further regulatory elements or terminators, may also be inserted at the 3′ end of the nucleic acid sequences to be expressed recombinantly. One or more copies of the nucleic acid sequences to be expressed recombinantly may be present in the gene construct.

It is furthermore possible to insert, after the start codon, what is known as a downstream box, which enhances expression in general (translation enhancer WO 00/07431; WO 01/21782).

Polyadenylation signals which are suitable as genetic control sequences, above all in the transformation of the nucleus, are plant polyadenylation signals, preferably those which correspond essentially to T-DNA polyadenylation signals from Agrobacterium tumefaciens, in particular of gene 3 of the T-DNA (octopine synthase) of the Ti plasmid pTiACHS (Gielen et al., EMBO J. 3 (1984), 835 et seq.) or functional equivalents thereof. Examples of especially suitable terminator sequences are the OCS (octopine synthase) terminator and the NOS (nopaline synthase) terminator.

The transformation vectors and insertion sequences according to the invention may comprise further nucleic acid sequences. Such nucleic acid sequences can preferably constitute expression cassettes. The following may be mentioned by way of example of the DNA sequences to be expressed in the expression constructs, but not by limitation:

1. Selection Markers

“Selection markers” means all those nucleic acid or protein sequences whose expression (i.e. transcription and, if appropriate, translation) confers a phenotype to a cell, tissue or organism which differs from that of an untransformed cell, tissue or organism. Selection markers comprises for example those nucleic acids or protein sequences whose expression confers an advantage (positiver selection marker) or disadvantage (negative selection marker) on a cell, tissue or organism in comparison with cells which do not express this nucleic acid or protein. For example, positive selection markers act by detoxifying a substance which has an inhibitory effect on the cell (for example resistance to antibiotics/herbicides), or by forming a substance which makes possible improved regeneration or enhanced growth of the plant under the selected conditions (for example nutritive markers, hormone-producing markers such as ipt; see hereinbelow). Another form of positive selection markers comprises mutated proteins or RNAs which are insensitive to a selective agent (for example 16S rRNA mutants, which are insensitive to spectinomycin). Negative selection markers act for example by catalyzing the formation of a toxic substance in the transformed cells (for example the codA gene). Moreover, selection marker can also comprise reporter proteins as long as they are suitable for differentiating transformed from untransformed cells, tissues or organs (for example by coloration or another detectable phenotype).

The following selection markers may be mentioned by way of example, but not by limitation:

1.1 Positive Selection Markers:

The selectable marker introduced into the nucleus or the plastids together with the expression cassette confers resistance to a biocide (for example a herbicide such as phosphinothricin, glyphosate or bromoxynil), a metabolic inhibitor such as 2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphate (WO 98/45456) or an antibiotic such as, for example, tetracyclins, ampicillin, kanamycin, G 418, neomycin, bleomycin or hygromycin, to the successfully transformed cells. The selection marker permits the selection of the transformed cells from untransformed cells (McCormick et al., Plant Cell Reports 5 (1986), 81-84; Dix PJ & Kavanagh TA (1995) Euphytica 85: 29-34).

Especially preferred selection markers are those which confer resistance to herbicides. Selection markers which may be mentioned by way of example are:

-   -   DNA sequences which encode phosphinothricin acetyltransferases         (PAT), which acetylate the free amino group of the glutamine         synthase inhibitor phosphinothricin (PPT) and thus detoxify the         PPT (de Block et al. 1987, EMBO J. 6, 2513-2518) (also referred         to as Bialophos® resistance gene (bar)). The bar gene encoding a         phosphinothricin acetyltransferase (PAT) can be isolated for         example from Streptomyces hygroscopicus or S. viridochromogenes.         Such sequences are known to the skilled worker (from         Streptomyces hygroscopicus GenBank Acc. No.: X17220 and X05822,         from Streptomyces viridochromogenes GenBank Acc. No.: M 22827         and X65195; U.S. Pat. No. 5,489,520). Synthetic genes are         further described for example for expression in plastids. A         synthetic PAT gene is described in Becker et al. (1994) The         Plant J. 5:299-307. The genes confer resistance to the herbicide         bialaphos or glufosinate and are widely used markers in         transgenic plants (Vickers J E et al. (1996). Plant Mol Biol         Reporter 14:363-368; Thompson C J et al. (1987) EMBO J         6:2519-2523).     -   5-Enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase genes (EPSP synthase         genes), which confer resistance to glyphosate         (N-(phosphonomethyl)glycin). The nonselective herbicide         glyphosate has 5-enolpyruvyl-3-phosphoshikimate synthase (EPSPS)         as molecular target. This enzyme has a key function in the         biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in microbes and plants, but         not in mammals (Steinrucken H C et al. (1980) Biochem. Biophys.         Res. Commun. 94:1207-1212; Levin J G and Sprinson D B (1964) J.         Biol. Chem. 239: 1142-1150; Cole D J (1985) Mode of action of         glyphosate a literature analysis, p. 48-74. In: Grossbard E and         Atkinson D (eds.). The herbicide glyphosate. Buttersworths,         Boston.). Glyphosate-tolerant EPSPS variants are preferably used         as selection markers (Padgette S R et al. (1996). New weed         control opportunities: development of soybeans with a Roundup         Ready™ gene. In: Herbicide Resistant Crops (Duke, S.O., ed.),         pp. 53-84. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla.; Saroha M K and Malik V         S (1998) J Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology 7:65-72). The         EPSPS gene of Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 has a natural         tolerance to glyphosate which can be transferred to         corresponding transgenic plants. The CP4 EPSPS gene has been         cloned from Agrobacterium sp. strain CP4 (Padgette S R et         al. (1995) Crop Science 35(5):1451-1461). Sequences of         5-enolpyrvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthases which are         glyphosate-tolerant, such as, for example, those described in         U.S. Pat. No. 5,510,471; U.S. Pat. No. 5,776,760; U.S. Pat. No.         5,864,425; U.S. Pat. No. 5,633,435; U.S. Pat. No. 5,627;061;         U.S. Pat. No. 5,463,175; EP 0 218 571, are described in the         patents and also deposited in GenBank. Further sequences are         described under GenBank Accession X63374. The aroA gene         (M10947 S. typhimurium aroA locus         5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (aroA protein) gene)         is furthermore preferred.     -   the gox gene (glyphosate oxidoreductase), which encodes the         Glyphosato degrading enzyme. GOX (for example the glyphosate         oxidoreductase from Achromobacter sp.) catalyzes the cleavage of         a C—N bond in glyphosate, which is thus converted into         aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) and glyoxylate. GOX can         thereby confer resistance to glyphosate (Padgette S R et         al. (1996) J Nutr. 1996 March; 126(3):702-16; Shah D et         al. (1986) Science 233: 478-481).     -   the deh gene (encoding a dehalogenase which inactives Dalapon®),         (GenBank Acc. No.: AX022822, AX022820 and WO 99/27116)     -   bxn genes, which encode bromoxynil-degrading nitrilase enzymes,         for example the Klebsiella ozanenae nitrilase. Sequences can be         found in GenBank for example under the Acc. No: E01313 (DNA         encoding bromoxynil specific nitrilase) and J03196 (K.         pneumoniae bromoxynil-specific nitrilase (bxn) gene, complete         cds).     -   Neomycin phosphotransferases confer resistance to antibiotics         (aminoglycosides) such as neomycin, G418, hygromycin,         paromomycin or kanamycin, by reducing their inhibitory action by         means of a phosphorylation reaction. Especially preferred is the         nptII gene. Sequences can be obtained from GenBank (AF080390         minitransposon mTn5-GNm; AF080389 minitransposon mTn5-Nm,         complete sequence). Moreover, the gene is already a component in         a large number of expression vectors and can be isolated from         them using methods with which the skilled worker is familiar         (such as, for example, polymerase chain reaction) (AF234316         pCAMBIA-2301; AF234315 pCAMBIA-2300, AF234314 pCAMBIA-2201). The         NPTII gene encodes an aminoglycoside 3′-O-phosphotransferase         from E. coli, Tn5 (GenBank Acc. No: U00004 position 1401-2300;         Beck et al. (1982) Gene 19-327-336). Moreover, the Acinetobacter         bauman-nii aphA-6 gene, which encodes an aminoglycoside         phospho-transferase, may also be utilized as selection marker         (Huang et al. (2002) Mol Genet Genomics 268:19-27)     -   the DOG^(R)1 gene. The gene DOGR1 was isolated from the yeast         Saccharomyces cerevisiae (EP 0 807 836). It encodes a         2-deoxyglucose-6-phosphate phosphatase, which confers resistance         to 2-DOG (Randez-Gil et al. 1995, Yeast 11, 1233-1240; Sanz et         al. (1994) Yeast 10:1195-1202, sequence: GenBank Acc. No.:         NC001140 chromosome VIII, Saccharomyces cervisiae position         194799-194056).     -   Sulfonylurea- and imidazolinone-inactivating acetolactate         synthases, which confer resistance to imidazolinone/sulfonylurea         herbicides. Examples which may be mentioned of imidazolinone         herbicides are the active substances imazamethabenz-methyl,         imazamox, imazapyr, imazaquin and imazethapyr. Examples of         sulfonylurea herbicides which may be mentioned are         amidosulforon, azimsulfuron, chlorimuronethyl, chlorsulfuron,         cinosulfuron, imazosulfuron, oxasulfuron, prosulfuron,         rimsulfuron, sulfosulfuron. The skilled worker is familiar with         a large number of further active substances from the         abovementioned classes. Nucleic acid sequences such as, for         example, the sequence for the Arabidopsis thaliana Csr 1.2 Gen         (EC 4.1.3.18) which has been deposited under the GenBank Acc         No.: X51514, are suitable (Sathasivan K et al. (1990) Nucleic         Acids Res. 18(8):2188). Acetolactate synthases, which confer         resistance to imidazolinone herbicides, are furthermore         described under the GenBank Acc. Nos.:     -   a) AB049823 Oryza sativa ALS mRNA for acetolactate synthase,         complete cds, herbicide resistant biotype     -   b) AF094326 Bassia scoparia herbicide resistant acetolactate         synthase precursor (ALS) gene, complete cds     -   c) X07645 Tobacco acetolactate synthase gene, ALS SuRB (EC         4.1.3.18)     -   d) X07644 Tobacco acetolactate synthase gene, ALS SuRA (EC         4.1.3.18)     -   e) A19547 Synthetic nucleotide mutant acetolactate synthase     -   f) A19546 Synthetic nucleotide mutant acetolactate synthase     -   g) A19545 Synthetic nucleotide mutant acetolactate synthase     -   h) 105376 Sequence 5 from patent EP 0257993     -   i) 105373 Sequence 2 from patent EP 0257993     -   j) AL133315     -   Hygromycin phosphotransferases (X74325 P. pseudomallei gene for         hygromycin phosphotransferase) which confer resistance to the         antibiotic hygromycin. The gene is a component of a large number         of expression vectors and can be isolated from them using         methods with which the skilled worker is familiar (such as, for         example, polymerase chain reaction) (AF294981 pINDEX4; AF234301         pCAMBIA-1380; AF234300 pCAMBIA-1304; AF234299 pCAMBIA-1303;         AF234298 pCAMBIA-1302; AF354046 pCAMBIA-1305.; AF354045         pCAMBIA-1305.1)     -   genes for resistance to     -   a) chloramphenicol (chloramphenicol acetyltransferase),     -   b) tetracyclin, various resistance genes have been described,         for example X65876 S. ordonez genes class D tetA and tetR for         tetracyclin resistance and repressor proteins X51366 Bacillus         cereus plasmid pBC16 tetracyclin resistance gene. Moreover, the         gene is already a component of a large number of expression         vectors and can be isolated therefrom using methods known to the         skilled worker (such as, for example polymerase chain reaction)     -   c) Streptomycin; various resistance genes have been described,         for example with the GenBank Acc. No.:AJ278607 Corynebacterium         acetoacidophilum ant gene for streptomycin adenylyltransferase.     -   d) Zeocin; the corresponding resistance gene is a component of a         large number of cloning vectors (for example L36849 cloning         vector pZEO) and can be isolated from these using methods known         to the skilled worker (such as, for example, polymerase chain         reaction).     -   e) Ampicillin (β-lactamase gene; Datta N, Richmond M H. (1966)         Biochem J. 98(1):204-9; Heffron F et al. (1975) J. Bacteriol         122: 250-256; the Amp gene was first cloned for generating         the E. coli vector pBR322; Bolivar F et al. (1977) Gene         2:95-114). The sequence is a component of a large number of         cloning vectors and can be isolated from them using methods         known to the skilled worker (such as, for example, polymerase         chain reaction).     -   Genes such as the isopentenyl transferase from Agrobacterium         tumefaciens (strain:PO22) (Genbank Acc. No.: AB025109). The ipt         gene is a key enzyme of cytokinin biosynthesis. Its         overexpression facilitates the regeneration of plants (for         example selection on cytokinin-free medium). The method for         utilizing the ipt gene has been described (Ebinuma H et         al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:2117-2121; Ebinuma, H et         al. (2000) Selection of marker-free transgenic plants using the         oncogenes (ipt, rol A, B, C) of Agrobacterium as selectable         markers, In Molecular Biology of Woody Plants. Kluwer Academic         Publishers).

Various other positive selection markers which confer a growth-related advantage to the transformed plants over the nontransformed plants, and methods for their use, have been described, inter alia, in EP-A 0 601 092. Examples which may be mentioned are β-glucuronidase (in conjunction with, for example, cytokinin glucuronide), mannose-6-phosphate isomerase (in conjunction with mannose), UDP-galactose 4-epimerase (in conjunction with, for example, galactose), with mannose-6-phosphate isomerase in conjunction with mannose being especially preferred.

Preferred for a selection marker which is functional in plastids are, in particular, those which confer resistance to spectinomycin, streptomycin, kanamycin, lincomycin, gentamycin, hygromycin, methotrexate, bleomycin, phleomycin, blasticidin, sulfonamide, phosphinothricin, chlorsulfuron, bromoxynil, glyphosate, 2,4-D, atrazine, 4-methyltryptophan, nitrate, S-aminoethyl-L-cysteine, lysine/threonine, aminoethyl-cysteine or betaine aldehyde. Especially preferred are the genes aadA, nptII, BADH, FLARE-S (a fusion of aadA and GFP, described by Khan M S & Maliga P, 1999 Nature Biotech 17: 910-915).

As selection marker which is functional in plastids, it is mainly the aadA gene which has been described (Svab Z and Maliga P (1993) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:913-917). Also described are modified 16S rDNA, the nptII gene (kanamycin resistance) and the bar gene (phosphinothricin resistance). Owing to the preference given to the selection marker aadA, the latter is preferably recycled, i.e. deleted from the genome, or plastome, following its use (Fischer N et al. (1996) Mol Gen Genet 251:373-380; Corneille S et al. (2001) Plant J 27:171-178), so that aada can be reused as selection marker in further transformations of an already transplastomic plant. The betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) from spinach has been described as a further possible selection marker (Daniell H et al. (2001) Trends Plant Science 6:237-239; Daniell H et al. (2001) Curr Genet 39:109-116; WO 01/64023; WO 01/64024; WO 01/64850). Lethal agents such as, for example, glyphosate, can also be utilized in connection with correspondingly detoxifying or resistant enzymes (WO 01/81605).

Binding type markers may also be utilized. To utilize the DBS recognition sequence of the homing endonuclease I-CpaI in the gene of the 23S rRNA, which sequence is preferred as insertion site, at least the 3′ end of the insertion sequence (preferably an artificial intron) is surrounded by homologous sequences of the target region. Thus, sequences of the 23S rDNA are incorporated into the transformation vector. Point mutations can be introduced at one position (position 2073 or 2074 of the tobacco 23S rRNA, sequence: AAAGACCCTATGAAG becomes sequence: GGAGACCCTATGAAG), which point mutations confer resistance to lincomycin to the ribosomes derived from a 23S rDNA which has been mutated thus (Cseplö A et al. (1988) Mol Gen Genet 214:295-299). Further point mutations comprise those in the tobacco 16S rRNA which confer reistance to spectinomycin (mutation underlined): a) 5′-GGAAGGTGAGGATGC-3′ (A in native sequence)

Other mutations confer resistance to streptomycin: b) 5′-GAATGAAACTA-3′ (C in native sequence) 1.2 Negative Selection Markers

Negative selection markers make possible for example the selection of organisms with successfully deleted sequences which comprise the marker gene (Koprek T et al. (1999) The Plant Journal 19(6):719-726). For example, sequences which encode selection markers or DSBI enzymes can be deleted from the genome/plastome after successful application of the method according to the invention.

When carrying out a negative selection, for example a compound which otherwise has no disadvantageous effect on the plant is converted into a compound which is disadvantageous, for example owing to the negative selection marker introduced into the plant.

Genes which have a disadvantageous effect per se are furthermore also suitable, such as, for example, TK thymidine kinase (TK) and diphtheria toxin A fragment (DT-A), the coda gene product encoding a cytosine deaminase (Gleave A P et al. (1999) Plant Mol Biol 40(2):223-35; Perera R J et al. (1993) Plant Mol Biol 23(4): 793-799; Stougaard J (1993) Plant J 3:755-761), the cytochrome P450 gene (Koprek et al. (1999) Plant J. 16:719-726), genes encoding a haloalkane dehalogenase (Naested H (1999) Plant J. 18:571-576), the iaaH gene (Sundaresan V et al. (1995) Genes & Development 9:1797-1810) or the tms2 gene (Fedoroff N V & Smith D L (1993) Plant J 3:273-289).

The concentrations-of the antibiotics, herbicides, biocides or toxins which are used in each case to carry out the selection must be adapted to the respective test-conditions or organisms. Examples which may be mentioned in context with plants are: kanamycin (Km) 50 to 100 mg/l, hygromycin B 40 mg/l, phosphino-thricin (Ppt) 6 to 20 mg/l, spectinomycin (Spec) 15 to 500 mg/l.

Furthermore, it is possible to express functional analogs of the abovementioned nucleic acids encoding selection markers. Functional analogs means, in the present context, all those sequences which have essentially the same function, i.e. which are capable of selecting transformed organisms. In this context, it is quite feasible that the functional analog differs with regard to other characteristics. For example, it can have a higher or lower activity, or else have further functionalities.

Functional analogs means furthermore sequences which encode fusion proteins consisting of one of the preferred selection markers and another protein, for example a further preferred selection marker, one of the reporter proteins mentioned hereinbelow or a PLS. By way of example, a fusion of the GFP (green fluorescent protein) and the aada gene may be mentioned (Sidorov V A et al. (1999) Plant J 19:209-216).

2. Reporter Genes

Reporter genes encode readily quantifiable proteins which, via their color or enzyme activity, allow an assessment of the transformation efficiency, the site or time of expression or the identification of transgenic plants. Very especially preferred in this context are genes encoding reporter proteins (see also Schenborn E, Groskreutz D. Mol Biotechnol. 1999; 13(1):29-44) such as

-   -   “green fluorescent protein” (GFP). (Chui W L et al., Curr Biol         1996, 6:325-330; Leffel S M et al., Biotechniques. 23(5):912-8,         1997; Sheen et al. (1995) Plant Journal 8(5):777-784; Haseloff         et al. (1997) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(6):2122-2127; Reichel et         al. (1996) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93(12):5888-5893; Tian et         al. (1997) Plant Cell Rep 16:267-271; WO 97/41228).     -   Chloramphenicol transferase,     -   Luciferase (Millar et al., Plant Mol Biol Rep 1992 10:324-414;         Ow et al. (1986) Science, 234:856-859); allows detection via         bioluminescence.     -   β-Galactosidase, encodes an enzyme for which a variety of         chromogenic substrates are available.     -   β-Glucuronidase (GUS) (Jefferson et al., EMBO J. 1987, 6,         3901-3907) or the uida gene, which encodes an enzyme for a         variety of chromogenic substrates.     -   R-Locus gene product: protein which regulates the production of         anthocyanin pigments (red coloration) in plant tissue and thus         makes possible the direct analysis of the promoter activity         without addition of further auxiliary substances or chromogenic         substrates (Dellaporta et al., In: Chromosome Structure and         Function: Impact of New Concepts, 18th Stadler Genetics         Symposium, 11:263-282, 1998).     -   β-Lactamase (Sutcliffe (1978) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA         75:3737-3741), enzyme for a variety of chromogenic substrates         (for example PADAC, a chromogenic cephalosporin).     -   xy1E gene product (Zukowsky et al. (1983) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA         80:1101-1105), catechol dioxygenase capable of converting         chromogenic catechols.     -   Alpha-amylase (Ikuta et al. (1990) Bio/technol. 8:241-242).     -   Tyrosinase (Katz et al. (1983) J Gen Microbiol 129:2703-2714),         enzyme which oxidizes tyrosine to DOPA and dopaquinone, which         subsequently form melanin, which can be detected readily.     -   Aequorin (Prasher et al. (1985) Biochem Biophys Res Commun         126(3):1259-1268), can be used in the calcium-sensitive         bioluminescence detection.

The selection marker, or the reporter gene, is preferably encoded on the transformation construct, especially preferably on the insertion sequence. However, it can also be encoded on an independent transformation construct which is introduced into the nucleus or the plastids of a plant cell in the form of a cotransformation together with the transformation construct of interest.

The transformation vectors and insertion sequences according to the invention may comprise further functional elements. The concept of further functional elements is to be understood in the broad sense. Preferably, it is understood as meaning all those elements which influence the generation, multiplication, function, use or value of the insertion sequences, transformation constructs or transformation vectors used within the scope of the present invention. The following may be mentioned by way of example of further functional elements, but not by limitation:

-   -   i. Replication origins (ORI) which make possible an         amplification of the expression cassettes or vectors according         to the invention in, for example, E. coli or else in plastids.         Examples of E. coli ORIs which may be mentioned are the pBR322         ori, the P15A ori (Sambrook et al.: Molecular Cloning. A         Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,         Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989) or the colE1 ORI, for example         from PBLUESCRIPT. Plastidic ORIs are described in U.S. Pat. No.         5,693,507, U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,479 or WO 99/10513.     -   ii. Multiple cloning regions (MCRs) permit and facilitate the         insertion of one or more nucleic acid sequences.     -   iii. Sequences which make possible the homologous recombination         or insertion into the genome or plastome of a host organism.     -   iv. Elements, for example border sequences, which make possible         the Agrobacterium-mediated transfer into plant cells for the         transfer and integration into the plant genome, such as, for         example, the right or left border of the T-DNA or the vir         region.

An insertion sequence or an expression construct for a DSBI enzyme can be inserted advantageously using vectors into which these constructs, or cassettes, are inserted. Vectors can be plasmids, cosmids, phages, viruses, retroviruses or else agrobacteria, by way of example.

In an advantageous embodiment, the expression cassette is inserted by means of plasmid vectors. Preferred vectors are those which make possible a stable integration of the expression cassette into the host genome or plastome.

The generation of a transformed organism or a transformed cell requires introducing the DNA in question into the host cell in question, or into the plastids thereof. A multiplicity of methods is available for this procedure, which is referred to as transformation (see also Keown et al. (1990) Methods in Enzymology 185:527-537). Thus, for example, the DNA can be introduced directly by microinjection, electroporation or by bombardment with DNA-coated microparticles. Also, the cell can be permeabilized chemically, for example with polyethylene glycol, so that the DNA can penetrate the cell by diffusion. Transformation can also be effected by fusion with other DNA-comprising units such as minicells, cells, lysosomes or liposomes. Others which must additionally be mentioned are transfection using calcium phosphate, DEAE dextran or cationic lipids, transduction, infection, the incubation of dry embryos in DNA-comprising solution, sonication, and the transformation of intact cells or tissue by microinjection or macroinjection into tissue or embryos, or tissue electroporation, or the vacuum infiltration of seeds. The skilled worker is familiar with such methods. In the case of injection or electroporation of DNA into plant cells, the plasmid used need not meet any particular requirements. Simple plasmids such as those from the pUC series can be used. If intact plants are to be regenerated from the transformed cells, the presence of an additional, selectable marker gene on the plasmid is useful. Methods for the regeneration of plants from plant tissues or plant cells have also been described.

There are several options for introducing DNA into the plastids. The only decisive aspect for the present invention is that the DNA is introduced into the plastids. However, the present invention is not limited to a specific method. Any method which permits the introduction of the DNA to be transformed into the plastids of a higher plant is suitable. The stable transformation of plastids is a method with which the skilled worker is familiar; it has been described for higher plants (inter alia by Svab Z and Maliga P (1993) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90(3):913-917). For example, the methods are based on transformation by means of the particle gun and insertion into the plastidic genome by homologous recombination under selection pressure. Further methods are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,402. In EP-A 0 251 654, the DNA is introduced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (see De Block M et al. (1985) EMBO J. 4:1367-1372; Venkateswarlu K and Nazar R N (1991) Bio/Technology 9:1103-1105). It has furthermore been demonstrated that DNA can be introduced into isolated chloroplasts by means of electroporation, thus bringing about transient expression (To K Y et al. (1996) Plant J 10:737-743). Transformation by means of a direct DNA transfer into plastids of protoplasts, for example using PEG (polyethylene glycol) is preferred (Koop H U et al. (1996) Planta 199:193-201; Kofer W et al. (1998) In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 34:303-309; Dix P J and Kavanagh T A (1995) Euphytica. 85:29-34; EP-A 0 223 247). Most preferred are biolistic transformation methods. Here, the DNA to be transformed is applied to, for example gold or tungsten particles. These particles are subsequently accelerated towards the explant to be transformed (Dix P J and Kavanagh T A (1995) Euphytica. 85:29-34; EP-A 0 223 247). Thereafter, transplastomic plants are regenerated under selection pressure on suitable medium in the manner with which the skilled worker is familiar. Such methods have been described (for example U.S. Pat. No. 5,451,513; U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,402; Svab Z et al. (1990) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:8526-8530; Svab Z and Maliga P (1993) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:913-917). Moreover, the DNA can be introduced into the plastids by means of microinjection. A specific microinjection method has been described recently (Knoblauch M et al. (1999) Nature Biotech 17:906-909; van Bel AJE et al. (2001) Curr Opin Biotechnol 12:144-149). This method is particularly preferred for the present invention. It is also possible to introduce, by means of protoplast fusion, the plastids from one species into a different species, to transform them in the latter and subsequently to return them to the original species by protoplast fusion (WO 01/70939).

Besides these “direct” transformation techniques, transformation can also be carried out by bacterial infection by means of Agrobacterium tumefaciens or Agrobacterium rhizogenes (Horsch R B (1986) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83(8):2571-2575; Fraley et al. (1983) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80:4803-4807; Bevans et al. (1983) Nature 304:184-187). The expression cassette for, for example, the DSBI enzyme is preferably intergrated into specific plasmids, either into a shuttle, or intermediate, vector or into a binary vector. Binary vectors are preferably used. Binary vectors are capable of replication both in E. coli and in Agrobacterium and be transformed directly into Agrobacterium (Holsters et al. (1978) Mol Gen Genet 163:181-187). Various binary vectors are known; some of them are commercially available such as, for example, pBIN19 (Clontech Laboratories, Inc. USA; Bevan et al. (1984) Nucl Acids Res 12:8711). The selection marker gene permits the selection of transformed agrobacteria and is, for example, the nptII gene, which confers resistance to kanamycin. The binary plasmid can be transferred into the agrobacterial strain for example by electroporation or other transformation methods (Mozo & Hooykaas 1991, Plant Mol. Biol. 16, 917-918). The plant explants are generally cocultured with the agrobacterial strain for two to three days. The agrobacterium which, in this case, acts as the host organism, should already comprise a plasmid with the vir region. Many Agrobacterium tumefaciens strains are capable of transferring genetic material, such as, for example, the strains EHA101[pEHA101] (Hood E E et al. (1996) J Bacteriol 168(3):1291-1301), EHA105[pEHA105] (Hood et al. (1993) Transgenic Research 2:208-218), LBA4404[pAL4404] (Hoekema et al. (1983) Nature 303:179-181), C58C1[pMP90] (Koncz and Schell (1986) Mol Gen Genet 204:383-396) and C58C1[pGV2260] (Deblaere et al. (1985) Nucl Acids Res 13: 4777-4788).

To transfer the DNA to the plant cell, plant explants are cocultured with Agrobacterium tumefaciens or Agrobacterium rhizogenes. Starting from infected plant material (for example leaf, root or stem portions, but also protoplasts or suspensions of plant cells), intact plants can be regenerated using a suitable medium which may comprise, for example, antiobiotics or biocides for selecting transformed cells. A cotransformed selection marker permits the selection of transformed cells from untransformed cells (McCormick et al. (1986) Plant Cell Reports 5:81-84). The plants obtained can be bred, selfed and hybridized in the customary manner. Two or more generations should be grown to ensure that the genomic integration is stable and hereditary. The abovementioned methods are described in, for example, Jenes B et al. (1993) Techniques for Gene Transfer, in: Transgenic Plants, Vol. 1, Engineering and Utilization, edited by Kung S D and Wu R, Academic Press, pp. 128-143 and in Potrykus (1991) Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Molec Biol 42:205-225).

The Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is best suited to dicotyledonous plant cells, whereas the direct transformation techniques are suitable for any cell type.

The Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is especially preferably employed for the transformation of the nucleus, while the direct transformation techniques are especially preferably employed for the transformation of plastids.

As soon as a predominanly homotransplastomic plant cell has been generated by the method according to the invention, an intact plant can be obtained using methods with which the skilled worker is familiar. The starting material for this purpose is, for example, callus cultures. The development of shoot and root can be induced in the known manner in this as yet undifferentiated biomass. The shoots obtained can be planted out and used for breeding.

Deletion Methods

In the above-described methods according to the invention, it is advantageous, at various levels, to remove certain sequences which have previously been introduced (for example sequences for selection-markers and/or DSBI enzymes) from the plastome or genome of the plant or cell. Thus, it is advantageous, but not necessarily required, to remove the selection marker which has been introduced for example during the insertion of a normatural DSB recognition sequence, from the master plant since the same selection marker can then be utilized in a subsequent transformation (for example with the insertion sequence).

Deletion is particularly advantageous since the selection marker is no longer necessarily required after the selection phase, and therefore superfluous. Moreover, deletion increases the consumer acceptance and is desirable for registration purposes. Moreover, the protein synthesis apparatus of the plastid is not unnecessarily burdened by the synthesis of the marker protein, which has potentially advantageous effects on the characteristics of the plant in question.

The skilled worker is familiar with a variety of methods for the directed deletion of sequences. One which should be mentioned by way of example, but not by limition, is the excision by means of recombinases. Various sequence-specific recombination systems have been described, such as the Cre/lox system of bacteriophage P1 (Dale E C and Ow D W (1991) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:10558-10562; Russell S H et al. (1992) Mol Gen Genet 234: 49-59; Osborne B I et al. (1995) Plant J. 7, 687-701), the yeast FLP/FRT system (Kilby N J et al. (1995) Plant J 8:637-652; Lyznik L A et al. (1996) Nucleic Acids Res 24:3784-3789), the Gin recombinase of the phage Mu, the Pin recombinase from E. coli or the R/RS system of the plasmid pSR1 (Onouchi H et al. (1995) Mol Gen Genet 247:653-660; Sugita K et al. (2000) Plant J 22:461-469). These methods can be utilized not only for deleting DNA sequences from the nuclear genome, but also from the plastome (Corneille et al. (2001) Plant J 27: 171-178; Hajdukieicz et al. (2001) Plant J 27:161-170). Further recombinases which can be employed are, for example, PhiC31 (Kuhstoss & Rao (1991) J Mol Biol 222:897-908), TP901 (Christiansen et al. (1996) J Bacteriol 178:5164-5173), xisF from Anabaena (Ramaswamy et al. (1997) Mol Microbiol 23:1241-1249), integrase from phage PhiLC3 (Lillehaug et al. (1997) Gene 188:129-136) or the recombinase encoded by the sre gene of the R4 phage (Matsuura et al. (1996) J Bacteriol 178:3374-3376).

In a preferred embodiment, however, the deletion is effected by intrachromosomal recombination owing to suitably introduced sequence duplications. The efficiency of the latter can be enhanced by the directed introduction of double-strand breaks near the sequence duplications (cf. FIG. 8). To this end, the sequence to be deleted is flanked bilaterally by homology sequences H1 and H2 which have sufficient length and homology to undergo recombination with one another. Recombination is induced by the induction of at least one sequence-specific double-strand break of a further DSB recognition sequence located near one of the two homology sequences (but preferably different from the first one). This DSB recognition sequence is preferably localized between the two homology sequences. To induce the double-strand break, it is preferred to express or introduce a second DSBI enzyme which differs from the first one. This method is especially preferably utilized for deleting selection markers from the plastome.

The invention furthermore relates to the transplastomic, predominantly homoplastomic, plants generated using the method according to the invention, and to parts of these plants, such as leaves, roots, seeds, fruits, tubers, pollen or cell cultures, callus and the like which are derived from such plants.

The invention furthermore relates to the plants employed in the method according to the invention which comprise an expression cassette according to the invention for a DSBI enzyme or a fusion protein of PLS and DSBI enzyme. In this context, the expression cassette for the fusion protein of PLS and DSBI enzyme is—especially preferably—stably integrated in the nuclear DNA under the control of a promoter which is functional in the plant nucleus. The expression cassette encoding a DSBI enzyme under the control of a promoter which is active in plant plastids is preferably stably integrated into the plastome. Comprised are furthermore parts of same such as leaves, roots, seeds, tubers, fruits, pollen or cell cultures, callus and the like which are derived from the abovementioned plants.

Genetically modified plants according to the invention which can be consumed by humans and animals can also be used as foods or feeds, for example directly or following processing known per se.

The invention furthermore relates to the use of the above-described transplastomic, predominantly homoplastomic, plants according to the invention and of the cells, cell cultures, parts—such as, for example, the roots, leaves and the like in the case of transgenic plant organisms—and transgenic propagation material such as seeds or fruits which are derived from them for the production of foods or feeds, pharmaceuticals or fine chemicals.

Fine chemicals refers to enzymes such as, for example, the industrial enzymes mentioned hereinbelow, vitamins such as, for example, tocopherols and tocotrienols (for example vitamin E) and vitamin B2, amino acids such as, for example, methionine, lysine or glutamate, carbohydrates such as, for example, starch, amylose, amylopectin or sucrose, fatty acids such as, for example, saturated, unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, natural and synthetic flavorings, aroma chemicals such as, for example linalool, menthol, borneone (camphor), pinene, limonene or geraniol, and colorants such as, for examle, retinoids (for example vitamin A), flavonoids (for example quercetin, rutin, tangeretin, nobiletin) or carotenoids (for example β-carotene, lycopene, astaxanthin). The production of tocopherols and tocotrienoles and of carotenoids is especially preferred. Growing the transformed host organisms, and isolation from the host organisms or the growth medium, are carried out using methods with which the skilled worker is familiar. The production of pharmaceuticals such as, for example, antibodies or vaccines has been described (Hood E E, Jilka J M. (1999) Curr Opin Biotechnol. 10(4):382-386; Ma J K and Vine N D (1999) Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 236:275-92).

The method according to the invention is particularly suitable for producing industrial enzymes within what is known as “phytofarming”. Examples of industrial enzymes which may be mentioned, but not by way of limitation, are lipases, esterases, proteases, nitrilases, acylases, epoxyhydrolases, amidases, phosphatases, xylanases, alcohol dehydrogenases, amylases, glucosidases, galactosidases, pullulanases, endocellulases, glucanases, cellulases, nucleases, chitin deacetylases, monoaminooxidases, lysozymes and laccases.

Embodiments which are especially preferred for the purposes of the invention are described in greater detail hereinbelow within the explanations of the figures.

Sequences

-   1. SEQ ID NO: 1

pCB42-94 Basic vector for plastid transformation.

-   2. SEQ ID NO:2

Nucleic acid sequence inserted into the multiple cloning site of pCB42-94 (SEQ ID NO: 1). Resulting vector: pCB199-3.

-   3. SEQ ID NO:3

Nucleic acid sequence inserted into the multiple cloning site of pCB42-94 (SEQ ID NO: 1). Resulting vector: pCB401-20

-   4. SEQ ID NO:4

Expession cassette from pCB289-13 for the expression of the I-PpoI homing endonuclease in plastids.

-   5. SEQ ID NO:5

Amino acid sequence of the I-PpoI homing endonuclease encoded by the expression cassette from pCB289-13.

-   6. SEQ ID NO:6

XhoI/BglII fragment employed for generating the vector pCB304-25.

-   7. SEQ ID NO:7

Nucleic acid sequence inserted into the multiple cloning site of pGEMTeasy. Resulting vector: pCB220-17

-   8. SEQ ID NO:8

Nucleic acid sequence inserted into the multiple cloning site of pBluescript. Resulting vector: pCB270-1

-   9. SEQ ID NO:9

Sequence from vector pCB315-1: LacZ gene with inserted intron for detecting splicing.

10. SEQ ID NO: 10

Ll.LtrB intron from vector pCB345-34.

-   11. SEQ ID NO: 11

Synthetic sequence of the homing endonuclease I-PpoI (ORF: 16 to 507)

-   12. SEQ ID NO: 12

Protein sequence of the homing endonuclease I-PpoI

-   13. SEQ ID NO: 13

Nucleic acid sequence of the homing endonuclease I-CpaI from Chlamydomonas pallidostigmatica (modification of the published sequence at position 69. An NcoI cleavage site was introdued at ATG (ORF: 4 to 462)

-   14. SEQ ID NO: 14

Protein sequence of the homing endonuclease I-CpaI

-   15. SEQ ID NO: 15

Sequence comprising the CpLSU2 intron

16. SEQ ID NO: 16: Oligonucleotide primer pl9 5′-TAAGGCCCTCGGTAGCAACGG-3′

17. SEQ ID NO: 17: Oligonucleotide primer p20 5′-GGGGTACCAAATCCAACTAG-3′

18. SEQ ID NO: 18: Oligonucleotide primer p21: 5′-GGAGCTCGCTCCCCCGCCGTCGTTC-3′

19. SEQ ID NO: 19: Oligonucleotide primer p22 5′-GATGCATGATGACTTGACGGCATCCTC-3′

20. SEQ ID NO: 20: Oligonucleotide primer p190 5′-GTCGACAGATCTTTAA-3′

21. SEQ ID NO: 21: Oligonucleotide primer p191 5′-AGATCTGTCGACTTAA-3′

22. SEQ ID NO: 22: Oligonucleotide primer p199 5′-GATCTCCAGTTAACTGGGGTAC-3′

23. SEQ ID NO: 23: Oligonucleotide primer p200 5′-CCCAGTTAACTGGA-3′

24. SEQ ID NO: 24: Oligonucleotide primer p218 5′-TTAAGCCAGTTAACTGGGCGGAGCT-3′

25. SEQ ID NO: 25: Oligonucleotide primer p219 5′-CCGCCCAGTTAACTGGC-3′

26. SEQ ID NO: 26: Oligonucleotide primer p276 5′-TCGAGAAGATCAGCCTGTTATCCCTAGAGTAACT-3′

27. SEQ ID NO: 27: Oligonucleotide primer p277 5′-CTAGAGTTACTCTAGGGATAACAGGCTGATCTTC-3′

28. SEQ ID NO: 28: Oligonucleotide primer p91 5′-AGAAGACGATCCTAAGG-3′

29. SEQ ID NO: 29: Oligonucleotide primer p92 5′-TGAAGACTTGACAAGGAATTTCGC-3′

30. SEQ ID NO: 30: Oligonucleotide primer p102 5′-AGAAGACGATCCTAAATAGCAATATTTACCTTTGGGACCAAAAGTTA TCAGGCATG-3

31. SEQ ID NO: 31: Oligonucleotide primer p103 5′TGAAGACTTGACAAGGAATTTCGCTACCTTCGAGTACTCCAAAACTAA TC-3′

32. SEQ ID NO: 32: Oligonucleotide primer p207 5′-GAGAAGACATTCCTAACACATCCATAACGTGCG-3′

33. SEQ ID NO: 33: Oligonucleotide primer p208 5′-TGAAGACTTGACATTTGATATGGTGAAGTAGG-3′

-   34. SEQ JD NO: 34

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the small subunit (SSU) of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco ssu) from pea

-   35. SEQ ID NO: 35

Transit peptide of the small subunit (SSU) of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco ssu) from pea

-   36. SEQ ID NO: 36

Transit peptide of the tobacco plastidic transketolase.

-   37. SEQ ID NO: 37

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the tobacco plastidic transketolase (reading frame 1; pTP09)

-   38. SEQ ID NO: 38

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the tobacco plastidic transketolase (reading frame 2; pTP10)

-   39. SEQ ID NO: 39

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the tobacco plastidic transketolase (reading frame 3; pTP11)

-   40. SEQ ID NO: 40

Transit peptide of the plastidic isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2) from Arabidopsis thaliana.

-   41. SEQ ID NO: 41

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the plastidic isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2) from Arabidopsis thaliana (reading frame 1; IPP-9)

-   42. SEQ ID NO: 42

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the plastidic isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2) Arabidopsis thaliana (reading frame 2; IPP-10)

-   43. SEQ ID NO: 43

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the transit peptide of the plastidic isopentenyl-pyrophosphate isomerase-2 (IPP-2) from Arabidopsis thaliana (reading frame 3; IPP-11)

-   44. SEQ ID NO: 44

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco PrbcL promoter.

-   45. SEQ ID NO: 45

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco Prps16-107 promoter.

-   46. SEQ ID NO: 46

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco Prrn16 promoter.

-   47. SEQ ID NO: 47

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco PaccD-129 promoter.

-   48. SEQ ID NO: 48

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco PclpP-53 promoter.

-   49. SEQ ID NO: 49

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco Prrn-62 promoter.

-   50. SEQ ID NO: 50

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco Prps16 promoter.

-   51. SEQ ID NO: 51

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco PatpB/E-290 promoter.

-   52. SEQ ID NO: 52

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the tobacco PrpoB-345 promoter.

-   53. SEQ ID NO: 53

Nucleic acid sequence encoding a promoter derived from the consensus sequence of the E. coli σ70 promoters.

-   54. SEQ ID NO: 54

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 5′-untranslated region of the tobacco psbA gene (5′psbA)

-   55. SEQ ID NO: 55

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 5′-untranslated region including 5′ portions from the coding region of the tobacco rbcL gene (5′rbcL).

-   56. SEQ ID NO: 56

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 5′-untranslated region of the tobacco rbcLs gene.

-   57. SEQ ID NO: 57

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 3′-untranslated region of the Synechocystis psbA-1 gene (3′psbA-1)

-   58. SEQ ID NO: 58

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 3′-untranslated region of the tobacco psbA gene (3′psbA)

-   59. SEQ ID NO: 59

Nucleic acid sequence encoding the 3′-untranslated region of the tobacco rbcL gene (3′rbcL)

-   60. SEQ ID NO: 60

Nucleic acid sequence encoding synthetic ribosome binding sites (RBS)

-   61. SEQ ID NO: 61

Nucleic acid sequence encoding synthetic ribosome binding sites (RBS)

-   62. SEQ ID NO: 62

Complete insert of the vector pCB304-25

-   63. SEQ ID NO: 63

BglII/MunI fragment of the vector pCB320-192.

64. SEQ ID NO: 64: Oligonucleotide primer p93 5′-AAAGATCTCCTCACAAAGGGGGTCG-3′

65. SEQ ID NO: 65: Oligonucleotide primer p97 5′-TCGAAGACTTAGGACCGTTATAG-3′

66. SEQ ID NO: 66: Oligonucleotide primer p98 5′-AGGAAGACCTTGTCGGGTAAGTTCCG-3′

67. SEQ ID NO: 67: Oligonucleotide primer p95: 5′-CTCAATTGGGGTCTCTCTGTCCAGGTGCAGG-3′

-   68. SEQ ID NO: 68: Nucleic acid sequence encoding fusion proteins     from the native I-Ppo-I nuclease and the IPP plastid localization     sequence (ORF for I-PpoI: 181-672; IPP transit peptide: 1-180;     native sequence from 1-172). -   69. SEQ ID NO: 69: Fusion proteins of the native I-Ppo-I nuclease     and the IPP-plastid localization sequence. -   70. SEQ ID NO: 70: Nucleic acid sequence encoding long version of     the I-Ppoi homing endonuclease. -   71. SEQ ID NO: 71: Amino acid sequence encoding long version of the     I-PpoI homing endonuclease. -   72. SEQ ID NO: 72: Nucleic acid sequence encoding a promoter     sequence derived from the consensus sequence of the σ70 promoters     from E. coli. -   73. SEQ ID NO: 73: Nucleic acid sequence encoding the artificial     intron TetIVS2a. -   74. SEQ ID NO: 74: Insert of vector pCB459-1 -   75. SEQ ID NO: 75: Insert of vector pCB478-3 -   76. SEQ ID NO: 76: Insert of vector pCB492-25

77. SEQ ID NO: 77: Oligonucleotide primer p396 5′-TAGTAAATGACAATTTTCCTCTGAATTATATAATTAACATGGCGACT GTTTACCAAAAAC-3

-   78. SEQ ID NO: 78: Oligonucleotide primer p95     5′-CTCAATTGGGGTCTCTCTGTCCAGGTGCAGG-3′ -   79. SEQ ID NO: 79: Nucleic acid sequence encoding PCR product     Prom-TetIVS2a-Cpa -   80. SEQ ID NO: 80: Insert of vector pCB435-45 -   81. SEQ ID NO: 81: Nucleic acid sequence encoding probe for Southern     blot analysis (directed against portions of the 16SrDNA). -   82. SEQ ID NO: 82: Nucleic acid sequence encoding probe for Southern     blot analysis (directed against portions of the 23SrDNA). -   83. SEQ ID NO: 83: Insert of vector pCB456-2 -   84. SEQ ID NO: 84: Insert of vector pCB528-2 from KpnI to SacI     Figures

Within the method according to the invention, particularly the embodiments detailed in the figures hereinbelow are especially preferred. The following abbreviations are generally used in the figures:

-   A, A′ Pair of homologous sequences A and A′ -   A/A′ Result of a homologous recombination between A and A′ and/or a     substitution of A by A′ caused by repair synthesis. -   B, B′ Pair of homologous sequences B and B′ -   B/B′ Result of a homologous recombination between B and B′ and/or a     substitution of B by B′ caused by repair synthesis. -   H1, H2: Pair of homologous sequences H1 and H2 -   H1/2: Sequence as the result of the homologous recombination of H1     and H2 -   DS Functional DSB recognition sequence -   nDS nonfunctional half of a DSB recognition sequence -   E: DSBI enzyme -   P: Promoter -   I: Further nucleic acid sequence (gene of interest) -   S, S′ Positive selection markers -   NS Negative selection marker -   IS Intron sequences. The intron in total is marked as a box. The box     comprises all elements required for a functional intron.

As already described above, A/A′ and B/B′ are the result of a homologous recombination and/or a substitution brought about by repair synthesis. The resulting sequence, in turn, can be the starting sequence for further homologous recombinations or repair syntheses. For the sake of simplicity, this sequence (A/A′ and B/B′) is again referred to as A and B, respectively, in the steps which follow.

1. FIG. 1: Introduction of a DSB Recognition Sequence into the Plastome by Means of Double Cross-Over

In an especially preferred embodiment 1, a DSBR construct is first introduced into plastids of a higher plant. In this embodiment, the DSBR construct is preferably equipped with homologous target regions and with an expressible selection marker (promoter-5′UTR-selection marker-3′UTR) and, in this embodiment, preferably comprises a recognition region for a DSBI enzyme which preferably has no natural recognition sequence in the plastidic genome of the (untransformed) plant in question. The DSBR construct can optionally already encode further genes of interest. Predominantly homoplastomic master plants are generated (FIG. 1).

2. FIG. 2A-E: Introduction of an insert sequence with an expression cassette for a DSBI enzyme and, if appropriate, selection markers and further genes of interest

Explants of the master plants generated in embodiment 1 are utilized for a further transformation with a transformation construct according to the invention. Preferably, the transformation construct according to the invention has regions which are homologous to the sequences surrounding the insertion site of the DSBR construct, which regions are preferably located on both sides (FIGS. 2A, 2B) or on one side (FIGS. 2C, 2D) of the insertion sequence. Insertion now takes place via homologous recombination (for example cross-over) or via repair synthesis.

The sequences to be inserted are especially preferably—following the homology sequences inwardly—flanked by portions of the DSB recognition sequence (nDS) which correspond to the portions originating as the consequence of cleavage with the DSBI enzyme (FIG. 2B). The insertion sequence thus comprises sequences which correspond in detail to the ends which are the result of a cleavage in the plastome and thus ensure a particularly efficient incorporation.

If the transformation construct, or the insertion sequence, has no such homologous regions, the insertion sequence is preferably provided, at these ends, with overhangs which are also generated by the DSBI enzyme after cleavage of the master plant plastome (FIG. 2E).

If only one homology sequence is present, this sequence borders, in an especially preferred embodiment, an nDS sequence (see hereinabove as described for FIG. 2B), while the other side of the insertion sequence is provided with overhangs which correspond to those generated by the DSBI enzyme in the plastome of the master plant (FIG. 2D).

The insertion sequence optionally codes for a further expressible selection marker which differs functionally from that of the DSBR construct, if appropriate one or more expressible genes of interest and the expressible DSBI enzyme, which cleaves the recognition sequence introduced by the DSBR construct at the insert site in the plastidic genome of the master plant. The insertion sequence of the transformation construct is inserted, in this context, in such a way at a position that said recognition region is no longer functional after the insertion.

3. FIG. 3: Introduction of a DSB Recognition Sequence into the Plastome by Means of Double Cross-Over in a Transcriptionally Active Region

In a further, especially preferred embodiment 2, a DSBR construct is initially introduced into plastids of a higher plant. In this embodiment, the DSBR construct is preferably equipped with homologous target regions and with an expressible selection marker, an endogenous promoter of the plastome being utilized, and it preferably additionally comprises a recognition sequence for a DSBI enzyme which preferably has no natural recognition sequence in the plastidic genome of the (nontransformed) plant in question. The DSBR construct may already encode genes of interest. Predominantly homoplastomic master plants are generated (FIG. 3).

4. FIG. 4A-E: Introduction of an isertion sequence with a cassette encoding a DSBI enzyme and, if appropriate, a selection marker and further genes of interest

Explants of the master plants generated in embodiment 2 are utilized for a further transformation with a transformation construct according to the invention. Preferably, the transformation construct according to the invention has regions which are homologous to the sequences surrounding the insertion site of the DSBR construct, which regions are preferably located on both sides (FIGS. 4A, 4B) or on one side (FIGS. 4C, 4D) of the insertion sequence. Insertion now takes place via homologous recombination (for example cross-over) or via repair synthesis. The sequences to be inserted are especially preferably—following the homology sequences inwardly—flanked by portions of the DSB recognition sequence (nDS) which correspond to the portions originating as the consequence of cleavage with the DSBI enzyme (FIG. 4B). The insertion sequence thus comprises sequences which correspond in detail to the ends which are the result of a cleavage in the plastome and thus ensure a particularly efficient incorporation.

If the transformation construct, or the insertion sequence, has no such homologous regions, the insertion sequence is preferably provided, at these ends, with overhangs which are also generated by the DSBI enzyme after cleavage of the master plant plastome (FIG. 4E).

If only one homology sequence is present, this sequence borders, in an especially preferred embodiment, an nDS sequence (see hereinabove as described for FIG. 4B), while the other side of the insertion sequence is provided with overhangs which correspond to those generated by the DSBI enzyme in the plastome of the master plant (FIG. 4D).

The insertion sequence optionally codes for a further expressible selection marker which differs functionally from that of the DSBR construct, if appropriate one or more expressible genes of interest and the expressible DSBI enzyme, which cleaves the recognition sequence introduced by the DSBR construct at the insert site in the plastidic genome of the master plant. The insertion sequence of the transformation construct is inserted, in this context, in such a way at a position that said recognition region is no longer functional after the insertion.

5. FIG. 5A-E: Introduction of an insertion sequence with a cassette encoding a DSBI enzyme and, if appropriate, selection markers and further genes of interest utilizing natural, endogenous DSB recognition sequences

In a further, very especially preferred embodiment 3, a transformation construct according to the invention comprises an expressible DSBI enzyme which has an endogenous, natural recognition sequence in the plastome of the plant in question.

Explants of these natural master plants are utilized for a transformation with a transformation construct according to the invention. Preferably, the transformation construct according to the invention has regions which are homologous to the sequences surrounding the insertion site of the DSBR construct, which regions are preferably located on both sides (FIGS. 5A, 5B) or on one side (FIGS. 5C, 5D) of the insertion sequence. Insertion now takes place via homologous recombination (for example cross-over) or via repair synthesis.

The sequences to be inserted are especially preferably—following the homology sequences inwardly—flanked by portions of the DSB recognition sequence (nDS) which correspond to the portions originating as the consequence of cleavage with the DSBI enzyme (FIG. 5B). The insertion sequence thus comprises sequences which correspond in detail to the ends which are the result of a cleavage in the plastome and thus ensure a particularly efficient incorporation.

If the transformation construct, or the insertion sequence, has no such homologous regions, the insertion sequence is preferably provided, at these ends, with overhangs which are also generated by the DSBI enzyme after cleavage of the master plant plastome (FIG. 5E).

If only one homology sequence is present, this sequence borders, in an especially preferred embodiment, an nDS sequence (see hereinabove as described for FIG. 5B), while the other side of the insertion sequence is provided with overhangs which correspond to those generated by the DSBI enzyme in the plastome of the master plant (FIG. 5D).

The insertion sequence of the tranformation construct is, in this context, preferably inserted at a position in such a way that said recognition region is no longer functional after the insertion. The insertion sequence preferably encodes an expressible selection marker (S′), one or more genes of interest, and the expressible DSBI enzyme. The selection marker is optional.

6. FIG. 6A-E: Introduction of an Insertion Sequence with a Cassette Encoding Genes of Interest and, if Appropriate, Selection Markers, and Introduction of a DSBI Enzyme in Trans

In further preferred embodiments 4, the DSBI enzyme is not encoded by the transformation construct, but either expressed in trans (in plastids or as PLS fusion protein in the nucleus) or transfected into the plastids in the form of RNA or protein. The DSBI enzyme recognizes either an artificially introduced DSB recognition sequence (FIGS. 6A, 6B) or a natural DSB recognition sequence (FIGS. 6C, 6D). This embodiment is especially preferred when the transformation construct comprises no promoter elements, and expression of the coded genes is only realized after insertion into the plastome, using plastidic, endogenous promoters.

As was the case in the embodiments which have already been described above, the transformation construct preferably has regions bilaterally (FIGS. 6A, 6B) or unilaterally (not shown) of the insertion sequence which are homologous to the sequences surrounding the insertion site of the DSBR construct. Insertion now takes place via homologous recombination (for example cross-over) or repair synthesis.

The sequences to be inserted are especially preferably—following the homology sequences inwardly—flanked by portions of the DSB recognition sequence (nDS) which correspond to the portions originating as the consequence of cleavage with the DSBI enzyme (FIGS. 6B, 6D). The insertion sequence thus comprises sequences which correspond in detail to the ends which are the result of a cleavage in the plastome and thus ensure a particularly efficient incorporation.

If the transformation construct, or the insertion sequence, has no such homologous regions, the insertion sequence is preferably provided, at these ends, with overhangs which are also generated by the DSBI enzyme after cleavage of the master plant plastome (FIG. 6E). The transformation construct can additionally comprise a sequence encoding a DSBI enzyme. However, expression only takes place after successful insertion into the plastome, so that it is desirable that a first amount of functional RNA or protein of a DSBI enzyme is provided.

If only one homology sequence is present, it borders, in an especially preferred embodiment, an nDS sequence (see above as described for FIGS. 6B, 6D), while the other side of the insertion sequence is provided with overhangs which correspond to those generated by the DSBI enzyme in the plastome of the master plant (not shown).

In this context, the insertion sequence of the transformation construct is preferably inserted at a position in such a way that said recognition region is no longer functional after the insertion.

7. FIG. 7A-E: Introduction of an insertion sequence comprising an intron sequence with a cassette encoding genes of interest and, if appropriate, selection markers or DSBI enzymes

In a further, very especially preferred embodiment 5, the gene of interest (and optionally a selection marker S′ and/or the DSBI enzyme) is/are encoded within an intron which is functional at the insertion site selected, i.e. which can splice out of the transcript formed therein.

Preferably, the transformation construct according to the invention has regions which are homologous to the sequences surrounding the insertion site of the DSBR construct, which regions are preferably located on both sides (FIGS. 7A, 7B) or one one side (not shown) of the insertion sequence. Insertion now takes place via homologous recombination (for example cross-over) or via repair synthesis.

If the transformation construct or the insertion sequence has no such homologous regions, the insertion sequence is preferably provided, at these ends, with overhangs which are also generated by the DSBI enzyme after cleaving the plastome of the master plant (not shown).

Expression can be controlled by means of a promoter which is present on the transformation construct (FIG. 7B) or an endogenous, plastidic promoter (FIG. 7A). In the first case, the DSBI enzyme is preferably present on the transformation construct (FIG. 7B), while, in the latter case, it is either expressed (at least in parallel) in trans (in plastids or as PLS fusion protein in the nucleus) or transfected into the plastids in the form of RNA or protein (FIG. 7A).

In this context, the insertion sequence of the transformation construct is preferably inserted at a position in such a way that said recognition region is no longer functional after the insertion. The transformation construct can additionally optionally comprise a sequence encoding a DSBI enzyme. However, expression only takes place after successful insertion into the plastome, so that it is desirable that a first amount of functional RNA or protein of a DSBI enzyme is provided.

8. FIG. 8: Deletion of Sequences by Means of Intramolecular Homologous Recombination Induced by Sequence-Specific Double-Strand Breaks

In all of the above-described embodiments, sequences—for example those encoding selection markers or DSBI enzymes—are preferably flanked by homology sequences H1 and H2 with sufficient length and homology to undergo recombination with one another. The recombination is induced by the induction of at least one double-strand break in the DSB recognition sequence located between the two homology sequences. To induce the double-strand break, it is preferred to transiently express or introduce a DSBI enzyme (FIG. 8).

The skilled worker realizes that the sequence of the genes expressed in an operon is exchangeable and can thus vary in the above-described embodiments. Also, when using only one homology sequence for inserting the insertion sequence, this homology sequence may be localized at the 5′ side (as shown in the figures) or the 3′ side of the double-strand break. In principle, the DSBI enzyme can be expressed on the transformation construct and/or separately (in the nucleus or the plastids) and introduced differently into—plastids, for example by transfection with RNA or protein.

9. FIG. 9: Southern Analysis of Predominantly Homotransplastomic Plants

Wild-type and predominantly homotransplastomic master plants were analyzed with regard to the modification (introduction of a DSB recognition sequence; cf. Example 4). Owing to the modification, a 1750 bp band was detected (lanes 2, 3 and 4 corresponding to lines CB199NTH-4, -6 and -8), while a 3100 bp band was detected in the unmodified wild-type plant (lane 1).

10. FIG. 10: Modification of the IGS of the Tetrahymena LSU Intron.

Capital letters indicate the sequence of the intron, while lower-case letters represent the sequence of the surrounding exons. The flanking exon sequences, the 5′ and 3′ portion of the intron or intron derivative, and the sequence comprising the IGS are shown. Bars between the bases indicate possible base pairings which can be formed for initiating the splicing procedure.

-   A: The abovementioned sequence segments of the naturally occurring     Tetrahymena LSU intron in its natural exon environment are shown. -   B: The abovementioned sequence segments of the Tetrahymena LSU     intron derivative generated within the scope of the present     invention (TetIVS2a) in the above-defined exon environment, as is     found in the CpLSU5 intron within the DSB recognition sequence of     the DSBI enzyme I-CpaI are shown. Letters in bold represent the     mutations carried out in comparison with the natural sequence.     11. FIG. 11: -   A: Southern analysis with BamHI-cut total DNA from the tobacco lines     CB255+435NTH-16b, -16c, -19 and -20. A region of the 16Sr DNA was     used as probe. The bands representing plastome copies which     correspond to the wild type (WT; approx. 3.2 kb band detected) and     those which bear the transgene (TG; approx. 2.3 kb band detected)     are identified by arrows. -   B: Schematic representation of transplastomic tobacco plants which     have originated by the insertion of the insertion sequence from     pCB435-45; and the bands to be expected in a corresponding Southern     analysis (cf. A). -   C: Southern analysis with HindIII-cut total DNA from the tobacco     lines CB255+435NTH-16b, -16c, -19 and -20. A region of the 23Sr DNA     was used as probe. The bands representing plastome copies which     correspond to the wild type (WT; approx. 1.1 kb band detected) and     those which bear the transgene (TG; approx. 1.5 kb band detected)     are identified by arrows. -   D: Schematic representation of transplastomic tobacco plants which     have originated by the insertion of the insertion sequence from     pCB255-1; and the bands to be expected in a corresponding Southern     analysis (cf. C).     12. FIG. 12: -   A: wild-type and predominantly homotransplastomic master plants were     analyzed in a Southern analysis with regard to the modification     (introduction of one of the I-PpoI DSB recognition sequence; cf.     Example 14.2). Owing to the modification, an approximately 1.7 kb     band was detected in the DNA which had been treated here with EcoRI     (TG; lanes 1 and 4 corresponding to lines CB456NTH-1 and -15), while     an approximately 3.1 kb band was detected in the unmodified     wild-type plant (WT; lane 6). (wt—unmodified wild-type plant; wild     type—shows the expected fragment size in unmodified wild-type     plants; transgenic—shows the expected fragment size in plants     CB456NTH) -   B: Schematic representation of the EcoRI fragment which was to be     expected in A by hybridization with the probe in a modified plant     CB456NTH. (trnV—gene encoding a tRNA-Val; rrn16—gene encoding the     16SrRNA; aada—gene encoding a selection marker; 3′psbA     (Synec)—noncoding region upstream of the Synechocystis psbA-1 gene,     here incorporated into the expression cassette for the selection     marker aada; Psynth.—synthetic promoter derived from the consensus     sequence for E. coli σ70 promoters; DSB-R: DSB recognition     sequence).

EXAMPLES

General Methods:

Oligonucleotides can be synthesized chemically for example in the known manner, using the phosphoamidite method (Voet, Voet, 2nd edition, Wiley Press New York, pages 896-897). The cloning steps carried out within the scope of the present invention such as, for example, restriction cleavages, agarose gel electrophoresis, purification of DNA fragments, transfer of nucleic acids to nitrocellulose and nylon membranes, linkage of DNA fragments, transformation of E. coli cells, bacterial cultures, propagation of phages, and the sequence analysis of recombinant DNA, are carried out as described by Sambrook et al. (1989) Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; ISBN 0-87969-309-6. Recombinant DNA molecules are sequenced with an ALF-Express laser fluorescence DNA sequencer (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden) following the method of Sanger (Sanger et al.-(1977) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:5463-5467).

Example 1 Generating a Basic Vector for the Transformation of Plastids

Initially, the selected target regions were cloned from the plastome of tobacco cv. SR1 by means of PCR. The left-hand target region was amplified using the primers p19 and p20. p19: 5′-TAAGGCCCTCGGTAGCAACGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 16) p20: 5′-GGGGTACCAAATCCAACTAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17)

The primers p21 and p22 were used for amplifying the right-hand target region, the last-mentioned primer additionally introducing a spectinomycin resistance into the amplfied part of the 16S rDNA, in addition to the SR1 resistance (binding-type marker). p21: 5′-GGAGCTCGCTCCCCCGCCGTCGTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 18) p22: 5′-GATGCATGATGACTTGACGGCATCCTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19)

The two amplified regions were cloned into pBluescript and pzeroBlunt, respectively, and sequenced. The left-hand and right-hand target regions were subsequently cloned into the backbone of the pUC19 vector. The cleavage sites EcoO109I and PvuII of the vector were used for this purpose. A multiple cloning site from pBluescript (from KpnI to SacI) was cloned between the left-hand and right-hand target region. This multiple cloning site resides between the two plastid-encoded genes trnv and rrnl6 in the basic vector for the transformation of plastids.

This basic vector for the transformation of plastids was named pCB42-94 (SEQ ID NO: 1). The vector-comprises the following sequence elements:

-   a) Position complementary to bp 55-1405: right-hand target     region-with-the partial gene of the 16S rRNA (complementary to bp 56     to 1322). The latter comprises mutations for the streptomycin     resistance (SR1, position bp 346) and spectinomycin resistance     (SPC1, position bp 68). -   b) Position complementary to bp 2374 to 1510: left-hand target     region comprising ORF131 (bp 1729 to 2124) and trnv gene inter alia     (complementary to bp 1613 to 1542). -   c) Position bp 1404 to 1511: multiple cloning site -   d) Position bp 2629 to 3417: ampicillin resistance in the vector     backbone

Example 2 Generation of a Vector (pCB199-3) for Introducing a Non-Naturally Occurring Recognition Region for the Homing Endonucleases I-PpoI into the Plastome of Tobacco

Various elements were cloned one after the other into the multiple cloning site of the basic vector pCB42-94 (SEQ ID NO: 1) for the transformation of plastids:

-   a) frt recognition region (mutated, contains no XbaI cleavage site;     complementary to 1307-1354) -   b) expression cassette for expressing the marker gene aada,     consisting of:     -   i) promoter of the gene for 16S rRNA (complementary to         1191-1281)     -   ii) 5′-untranslated region of the tobacco rbcL gene         (complementary to 1167-1184) including mutated 5′ portions of         the rbcL gene (duplication of 6 AS of the rbcL gene, partly         mutated, as the consequence of the cloning strategy so that a         fusion encoding a total of 12 amino acids (complementary to         1131-1166) with the subsequent element, the aada gene, was         formed)     -   iii) aada gene (complementary to 336-1130)     -   iv) the 3′ region of the psbA gene (complementary to 232-323) -   c) core recognition region for the homing endonuclease I-PpoI     (complementary to. 176-190).

This vector, which is referred to as pCB199-3, comprises the abovementioned elements within the nucleic acid sequence with the SEQ ID NO: 2 instead of the multiple cloning site in the basic vector for the transformation of plastids. The sequence which replaces the complete MCS from KpnI to SacI is shown. However, there is no longer a KpnI cleavage site in the sequence shown, owing the cloning strategy.

Example 3 Generation of a Further Vector (pCB401-20) for Introducing a Non-Naturally Occurring Recognition region for the Homing Endonuclease I-PpoI into the Plastome of Tobacco

In contrast to the vector pCB199-3 described in Example 2, the vector described herein comprises no promoter and 3′UTR linked directly to the selection marker aada. Rather, the expression of the aada gene is controlled starting from the promoter of the trnV gene which is localized in the plastidic genome or in the left-hand target region upstream of the aadA gene. The purpose of generating this vector was to avoid sequence duplication by exploiting regulatory regions from the tobacco plastidic genome.

To this end, various elements were cloned one after the other into the multiple cloning site of the basic vector pCB42-94 for the transformation of plastids:

-   a) ribosome binding site (complementary to bp 1033 to 1050) -   b) aada gene (complementary to bp 238 to 1032) -   c) core recognition region for the homing endonuclease I-PpoI     (complementary to bp 176 to 190)

The resulting vector also confers spectinomycin resistance in E. coli. This vector, which is referred to as pCB401-20, comprises the abovementioned elements within the nucleic acid sequence with the SEQ ID NO: 3 instead of the multiple cloning site in the basic vector pCB42-94 (SEQ ID NO: 1) for the transformation of plastids. Again, all of the sequence which replaces the MCS (from SacI to KpnI) is shown.

Example 4 Generation of Predominantly Homoplastomic Tobacco Master Plants Comprising a Non-Natural DSB Recognition Sequence

The plasmid pCB199-3 was introduced into the plastids of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum cv. Petit Havana) as described hereinbelow. The regenerated plants-were named CB199NTH. Independent lines were provided with different last numbers (for example CB199NTH-4).

The vector pCB401-20 is introduced analogously into the plastids of tobacco. Accordingly, the resulting plants are named CB401NTH.

First, leaf disks of diameter 2.0 to 2.5 cm were punched out of in-vitro-cultured plants, using a sterile cork borer, and placed upside-down on a Petri dish with bombardment medium [MS salts (Sigma-Aldrich): 4.3 g/l; sucrose: 30.0 g/l, Phyto-agar (Duchefa, P1003): 0.6% (w/v); pH 5.8; after autoclaving, 1.0 mg/l thiamine (Duchefa, T0614) and 0.1 g/l myo-inositol (Duchefa, 10609,) were added]. The underside of the leaf, which faced away from the agar, was subsequently bombarded using the particle gun. To this end, the plasmid DNA to be transformed (isolated from E. coli using Nucleobond AX100 Macherey & Nagel) was first applied to gold particles 0.6 μm in side by the following protocol (“coating”). First, 30 mg of powdered gold (BioRad) were taken up in ethanol. 60 μl of the gold suspension were transferred into a fresh Eppendorf tube and the gold particles were sedimented by centrifugation (for 10 seconds). The gold particles were washed twice in in each case 200 μl of sterile water and, after a further centrifugation step, taken up in 55 μl of water. The following were added rapidly, with continuous mixing (vortexing):

-   -   5 μl plasmid DNA (1 μg/μl)     -   50 μl 2.5 M CaCl₂     -   20 μl 0.1 M spermidine

The suspension was subsequently vortexed for a further 3 minutes and subsequently centrifuged briefly. The gold/DNA complexes which had sedimented were washed once or twice in in each case 200 μl of ethanol and, after a further centrifugation step, finally taken up in 63 μl of ethanol. 3.5 μl (corresponding to 100 μl of gold) of this suspension were applied to a macrocarrier for each bombardment.

The particle gun (BioRad, PDS1000He) was prepared in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, and the leaf explants were bombarded with the gold/DNA complexes from a distance of 10 cm. The following parameters were used: vacuum: 27 inch Hg, pressure 1100 psi. After the bombardment, the explants were incubated for 2 days in controlled-evironment cabinets (24° C., 16 h light, 8 h darkness) and subsequently divided into segments approximately 0.5 cm² in size, using a surgical blade. These segments were then transferred to regeneration medium [bombardment medium supplemented with 1 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP, Duchefa, B0904) and 0.1 mg/l naphthylacetic acid (NAA, Duchefa, N0903)] supplemented with 500 mg/l spectinomycin (Duchefa, S0188) and in-cubated for 10 to 14 days under the abovementioned conditions in a controlled-environment cabinet. After this period of time had elapsed, the leaf segments were transferred to fresh regeneration medium supplemented with 500 mg/l spectinomycin. This procedure was repeated until green shoots formed on the explants. The shoots were removed using a surgical blade and grown on growth medium (like bombardment medium, but with 10 g/l sucrose instead of 30 g/l sucrose) supplemented with 500 mg/l spectinomycin.

To obtain as predominantly homoplastomic plants as possible, it is optionally possible to excise explants from the regenerated plants themselves and to place them on regeneration medium with 1000 mg/l spectinomycin. Regenerating shoots are transferred into glass containers with growth medium supplemented with 500 to 1000 mg/l spectinomycin. After the plants have rooted, they are transferred into the greenhouse, where they are grown in soil until the seeds have matured.

When the transformation was carried out with the plasmid pCB199-3, 8 plants with resistance to spectinomycin were obtained. PCR and Southern analyses proved that three of these lines (lines CB199NTH-4, -6 and -8) have indeed incorporated the aada gene into the plastidic genome.

To perform a Southern analysis of the transplastomic plants, total DNA from leaves was isolated from transformed and untransformed plants with the aid of the GenElute Plant Genomic DNA Kit (Sigma). The DNA was taken up in 200 μl of eluate. 86 μl portions of this were treated with in each case 10 μl of 10× restriction puffer and 40 U of restriction endonuclease and incubated for 4 to 8 hours at the temperature recommended for the restriction enzyme. The DNA was subsequently precipitated with ethanol in the manner known to the skilled worker and the precipitate was subsequently taken up in 20 μl of water. The samples were subsequently separated on agarose gel by methods known to the skilled worker, and the DNA was denatured in the gel and transferred to a nylon membrane by means of a capillary blot.

A suitable probe for the radioactive hybridization was generated with the aid of the HighPrime (Roche) system. First, the membrane was prehybridized for 1 hour at 65° C. with Hyb buffer (1% (w/v)) bovine-serum-albumin; 7% (w/v) SDS; 11 mM EDTA; 0.5 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2). The heat-denatured probe was subsequently added and left to hybridize overnight at 65° C. The blots were subsequently washed as follows: one rinse with 2×SSPE/0.1% SDS; washing for 15 minutes at 65° C. with 2×SSPE/0.1% SDS; washing for 15 minutes at 65° C. with 1×SSPE/0.1% SDS; if appropriate, the last step was repeated again (20×SSPE is 3 M NaCl; 0.2 M NaH₂PO₄; 0.5 M EDTA; pH 7.4).

The hybridization was subsequently analyzed with the aid of a phosphoimager (Molecular Imager FX, BioRad).

For example, PstI-cut total DNA from different plants which had been regenerated after transformation with pCB199-3 were hybridized with the aadA gene as radiolabeled probe (793 bp PstI/NcoI fragment from pCB199-3). Here, it was found that the lines CB199NTH-4, -6 and -8 had indeed incorporated the aadA gene into the DNA. Moreover, EcoRI- and XhoI-cut total DNA from CB199NTH-4, -6 and -8 was hybridized with a radiolabeled probe (1082 bp Bsp120I/SacI fragment from pCB199-3), which hybridizes with part of the 16S rDNA. While, as expected, an approximately 3100 bp band was detected in the wild type (untransformed plant), mostly a band at 1750 bp was detected in the transplastomic lines, as the result of the insertion of the insertion sequence from pCB199-3 into the plastome (FIG. 9). The resulting plants can be considered as being being predominantly homotransplastomic.

Example 5 Generation of Transformation Vectors which can be used for Transforming the Plastids of Master Plants CB199NTH by Means of the Artificial Homing Process

5.1 Cloning of the Homing Endonuclease I-PpoI

The homing endonuclease I-PpoI was generated from 26 synthetic oliogonucleotides by means of PCR, following a modification of the method of Stemmer WPC et al. (1995) Gene 164: 49-53 (SEQ ID NO: 11). The basic sequence was derived from the published sequence (Accession No. M38131 nucleotides 86 to 577). Here, a few mutations were introduced to remove restriction endonuklease recognition sites from the gene; however, these mutations did not involve an altered amino acid sequence. The following elements were subsequently combined one after the other in a pBluescript KS (Stratagene) vector backbone in order to generate an I-PpoI expression cassette. The sequence is flanked by the cleavage sites KpnI and SacI.

-   a) Posit-ion 21 to 111: Prrn promoter -   b) Position 118 to 135: 5′-untranslated region of the rbcL gene     followed by 18 bp encoding 6 amino acids of the rbcL protein (bp     136-152) -   c) Position 154 to 645: Nucleic acid sequence encoding I-PpoI. -   d) Position 688-779: 3′-untranslated region of the psbA gene.

The resulting plasmid was named pCB289-13. Despite the expression of the enzyme I-PpoI, which was expected to take place in E. coli, no adverse effects on the growth were observed. The sequence described by SEQ ID NO: 4 resulted from the KpnI cleavage site to the SacI cleavage site (vector backbone remains that of pBluescript KS).

5.2 Generation of a Transformation Vector for Artificial Homing with Homologous Regions Flanking the Insertion Sequence Bilaterally

I) Without I-PpoI in the Insertion Sequence

Regions around the I-PpoI recognition region from pCB199-3 were excised using PstI and SacI and ligated into the PstI and SacI cleavage sites of pBluescript. Thereafter, cleavage sites which ere not required were removed from this vector by linearizing it with PstI and Bsp120I and, following treatment with Klenow fragment, recircularizing the vector. With the aid of commercially available enzyme I-PpoI (PROMEGA GmbH, Mannheim, Germany), the corresponding recognition region was cleaved in the resulting vector, and further cleavage sites were inserted therein by means of the synthetic oligos p190 and p191. Oligo p190: 5′-GTCGACAGATCTTTAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 20) Oligo p191: 5′-AGATCTGTCGACTTAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 21)

An expression cassette consisting of the following elements was introduced in the form of.a BglII/XhoI fragment (SEQ ID NO: 6) into the cleavage sites SalI and BglII, which had thus been introduced:

-   a) Prps16 promoter (complementary to 1033-1139) -   b) 5′rbcL (complementary to 1007-1024) with 18 bp encoding the 6 AAs     (complementary to 989-1006) -   c) nptII gene (complementary-to 185-988) -   d) 3′rbcL (complementary to 6-143)

The resulting vector was named pCB304-25 and also conferred kanamycin resistance to E. coli cells. This vector is no longer linearized by commercially available I-PpoI. All of the insert of the vector pCB304-25 (backbone pBluescript; replacing the MCS accordingly from SacI to KpnI) is described by SEQ ID NO: 62 and thus comprises the following elements:

-   a) Position bp 19 to 110: 3′psbA from tobacco -   b) Position bp 149 to 160: nonfunctional “half” of the I-PpoI     recognition sequence -   c) Position bp 171 to 277: Prps16 promoter -   d) Position bp 286 to 303: 5′rbcL sequence followed by 18 bp     encoding the first 6 amino acids of the rbcL protein (bp 304-321) -   e) Position bp 322 to 1125: nptII -   f) Position bp 1167 to 1304: 3′rbcL -   g) Position bp 1310 to 1319: nonfunctional “half” of the I-PpoI     recognition sequence -   II) With I-PpoI in the insertion sequence

A BglII/MunI fragment which encoded a 5′psbA -1-PpoI fusion was additionally introduced into the vector pCB304-25 with the aid of the BamHI and EcoRI cleavage sites. The resulting vector pCB320-192 thus expressed the nptII gene and I-PpoI homing endonuclease under the control of the Prpsl6 promoter. The Bgl II/Mun I fragment is represented by SEQ ID NO: 63 and comprises the following elements:

-   a) Position bp 6 to 82: 5′psbA -   b) Position bp 83 to 574: I-PpoI     5.3 Generation of a Transformation Vector for Artificial Homing with     a Homologous Region Flanking the Insertion Sequence Unilaterally

The elements located upstream of the Prpsl6 promoter and which are homologous to those in the master plants CB199NTH were removed from the vector pCB320-192 by restriction with KpnI and BglII. Instead, a BstXI cleavage site was introduced therein by means of synthetic oligonucleotides pl99 and p200. p199 5′-GATCTCCAGTTAACTGGGGTAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 22) p200 5′-CCCAGTTAACTGGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 23)

DNA ends which are compatible with those originating by restriction with I-PpoI can now be generated by cleaving with BstXI. The resulting vector was renamed pCB322-1. A fragment which, at its one side, has an end which is compatible with DNA which had been cleaved with I-PpoI at its core recognition region and, at its other side, homology with plastome sequences of the master plants CB199NTH can be obtained from this vector for example using the enzymes BstXI and SacI.

5.4 Generation of a Transformation Vector for Artificial Homing Without Homologous Regions Around the Insertion Sequence

The remaining portion, which is homologous with recombinant plastid sequences of the master plants CB199NTH, was removed from the vector pCB322-1 using SacI and BspTI. Simultaneously, a BstXI cleavage site which, after cleavage with BstXI generates DNA ends which are compatible with I-PpoI-cut DNA, was generated here by introducing synthetic oligonucleotides p218 and p219. The resulting vector was named pCB347-33. p218 5′-TTAAGCCAGTTAACTGGGCGGAGCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 24) p219 5′-CCGCCCAGTTAACTGGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 25)

A fragment with bilateral DNA ends which are compatible with the DNA ends generated by the I-PpoI enzyme at its core recognition region can be isolated from this vector using the enzyme BstXI.

Example 6 Use of the Master Plants CB199NTH for Plastid Transformation by Means of DSB Induction

6.1 Using the Vectors Generated in 5.1 and 5.2 for Transforming the Master Plants CB199NTH by using the DSBI enzyme I-PpoI

The plasmid pCB304-24 and the plasmid pCB289-13 were simultaneously applied to gold particles as described in Example 4 and used to bombard explants of the master plants CB199NTH, which explants had been treated analogously to what has been said in Example 4. However, the procedure differed from the decription in Example 4 insofar as incubation is first carried out for 10 days on the regeneration medium without antibiotics; later, kanamycin is used in a concentration of 50 mg/l (in contrast to the 500 mg/l spectinomycin stated in Example 4).

The plasmid pCB320-192 was applied to gold particles as described in Example 4. After the ethanol washing step, 20 U of commercially available I-PpoI enzyme (Promega) were additionally added. Further treatment was as described above.

Also, in a different batch, 0.5 μg of a transcript generated in vitro with the aid of the T7 polymerase was applied simultaneously with the plasmid pCB320-192 to the gold particles.

The template for the in-vitro transcription was HindIII-linearized DNA of the plasmid pCB289-13. The transcript generated thus therefore encodes I-PpoI. After the bombardment, the treatment of the explants of the master plants continues as described above.

6.2 Using the Vectors Generated in 5.1 and 5.3 for Transforming the Master Plants CB199NTH by Utilizing the DSBI Enzyme I-PpoI and Homologous Regions which are only Unilaterally Present

A fragment excised from the plasmid pCB322-1 with BstXI and SacI was eluted from an agarose gel. This fragment was subsequently applied to gold particles simultaneously with 1 μg of in-vitro transcript of HindIII-linearized plasmid pCB289-13 (cf. Example 6.1). After the explants of the master plants CB199NTH have been bombarded, the rest of the treatment is as described for Example 6.1.

6.3 Using the Vectors Generated in 5.1 and 5.4 for Transforming the Master Plants CB199NTH by Utilizing the DSBI Enzyme I-PpoI Without Homologous Regions

The insertion sequence was excised from the plasmid pCB347-33 by means of BstXI and eluted from an agarose gel. This fragment was applied to gold particles simultaneously with 1 μg of in-vitro transcript of the HindIII-linearized plasmid pCB289-13. The bombardment and the rest of the treatment are as detailed in Example 6.1.

Example 7 Identification of Naturally Occurring, Endogenous Recognition Regions for Homing Endonucleases in Plastomes of Different Plant Species

Although no homing enconucleases are known to occur in the plastids of higher plants, known plastome sequences were tested for the presence of recognition regions for homing endonucleases. This was done with the aid of the computer program SeqMan II (DNASTAR Inc.). The recognition regions which were identified in this manner are compiled in Table 1.

Based on the computer analysis, it was not possible to tell whether I-SceI has a recognition region in the plastidic genome or not. The region which is most likely to be able to act as recognition region was generated synthetically and integrated into the XbaI and XhoI cleavage site of pBluescript in the form of oligonucleotides p276 and p277. The resulting plasmid pCB414-1 was subsequently analyzed with the aid of a commercially available enzyme I-SceI (Roche) for the presence of a functional cleavage site. The plasmid was indeed linearized by I-SceI. This leads to the conclusion that I-SceI which is expressed in lastids likewise recognizes, and cleaves, this sequence. A further endogenous DSB recognition sequence for a DSBI enzyme has thus been identified. p276 5′-TCGAGAAGATCAGCCTGTTATCCCTAGAGTA (SEQ ID NO: 26) ACT-3′ p277 5′-CTAGAGTTACTCTAGGGATAACAGGCTGATC (SEQ ID NO: 27) TTC-3′

Example 8 Cloning Homologous Regions from the Tobacco Plastome which Flank the Endogenous Recognition Region for the Homing Endonuclease I-CpaI

DNA fragments from the 23S rDNA of the tobacco plastome were amplified by means of PCR upstream and downstream of the I-CpaI recognition region using the primers p93 and p97, and p98 and p95, respectively. p93: AAAGATCTCCTCACAAAGGGGGTCG (SEQ ID NO: 64) p97: TCGAAGACTTAGGACCGTTATAG (SEQ ID NO: 65) p98: AGGAAGACCTTGTCGGGTAAGTTCCG (SEQ ID NO: 66) p95: CTCAATTGGGGTCTCTCTGTCCAGGTGCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 67)

The resulting fragments were used for constructing the vector pCB270-1. The fragment from BssHII to BssHII of the pBlueScript vector (SEQ ID NO: 8) is shown, the 5′ end of the sequence indicated being located at the BssHII cleavage site which is closer to the 3′ end of the lacZ gene.

Two BpiI cleavage sites were introduced between the DNA fragments located upstream and downstream of the I-CpaI recognition regions. BpiI generates overhangs which are outside their recognition region. This procedure ensured that the vector pCB270-1 could likewise be used for the subsequent ingegration of various introns. To this end, simple overhangs which are compatible with the ends generated by BpiI in the vector pCB270-1 are generated at the introns to be cloned. Moreover, the respective nucleotides which are absent between the two fragments of the 23S rDNA in the vector pCB270-1 are added onto the introns. The selected regions are so highly conserved that there is no need to amplify new regions from other plant species. Furthermore, a point mutation in the 23S rDNA, as has also been found in lincomycin-resistant mutants, has been introduced into the sequence downstream of the I-CpaI recognition region via PCR strategy. The sequence of the vector pCB270-1 which has been inserted into the pBluescript vector is shown in SEQ ID NO: 8. The sequence comprises the following elements:

-   -   Fragment of the 23S rDNA upstream of the I-CpaI recognition         region: nucleotides 37 to 194     -   Fragment of the 23SrDNA upstream of the I-CpaI recognition         region: nucleotides 237 to 359     -   Point mutation for lincomycin resistance: 352 (A being native at         this point)

Vector pCB234-1 is constructed just as vector pCB270-1, but additionally has a recognition region for each of the restriction enconucleases XhoI and SacI downstream of the sequence shown hereinbelow.

Example 9 Cloning of the CpLSU2 Intron Including the Homing Endonuclease I-CpaI

The CpLSU2 intron (SEQ ID NO: 15) was amplified from the DNA of the alga Chlamydomonas pallidostigmatica (Culture Collection of Algae at the University of Gbttingen, SAG Number 9.83, Chlamydomonas segnis, authentic strain of Chlamydomonas pallidostigmatica Kinq) by means of PCR using the oligonucleotides p91 and p92. p91 5′-AGAAGACGATCCTAAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 28) p92 5′-TGAAGACTTGACAAGGAATTTCGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 29)

The oligonucleotides were chosen in such a way that cloning into the BpiI cleavage sites of the vector pCB234-1 was possible, as described above. The sequence comprises the following elements:

-   -   Position 9-17—portion of the tobacco 23S rDNA which is absent in         pCB234-1     -   CpLSU2 intron: position 18-893-     -   I-CpaI ORF: position 377-835     -   Position 894-909—portion of the tobacco 23S rDNA which is absent         in pCB234-1

This fragment, which comprises the CpLSU2 intron, was cloned into the backbone of the vector pGEMTeasy (Promega) (vector pCB141-3). The entire fragment was excised from this vector using BpiI and cloned into the BpiI-linearized vector pCB234-1. The resulting vector was named pCB254-2.

Example 10 Nuclear LSU-rRNA Intron from Tetrahymena thermophila

10.1 Cloning the LSU-rRNA Intron from Tetrahymena thermophila

The LSU-rRNA intron was amplified from the organism Tetrahymena thermophila by means of PCR. Again, the oligonucleotides p102 and p103 were chosen in such a way that the nucleotides of the tobacco 23S rDNA, which are absent in pCB234-1, were added onto the intron to be amplified. p102: 5′-AGAAGACGATCCTAAATAGCAATATTTACCT (SEQ ID NO: 30) TTGGGACCAAAAGTTATCAGGCATG-3′ p103: 5′TGAAGACTTGACAAGGAATTTCGCTACCTTCG (SEQ ID NO: 31): AGTACTCCAAAACTAATC-3′

Moreover, the internal guide sequence (underlined in plO2) is mutated in such a way over the wild type, owing to the choice of the oligonucleotide p102, that splicing of this intron-at the desired position in the tobacco 23S rDNA is possible. The sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 7—the PCR fragment from the BpiI to BpiI cleavage site is shown—was cloned into the backbone of the vector pGEMTeasy. The resulting vector was named pCB220-17. The sequence comprises the following elements:

-   -   Position 9-12—portion of the tobacco 23S rDNA which is absent in         pCB234-1     -   LSU intron: position 13-425     -   Position 426-446—portion of the tobacco 23S rDNA which is absent         in pCB234-1

The Tetrahymena LSU intron including the added, flanking sequences, was excised from the vector pCB220-17 using BpiI and inserted into the BpiI cleavage sites of the vector pCB234-1. The resulting product was named pCB255-1.

10.2 Indirect Detection of the Splicing Activity of the Tetrahymena LSU Intron in E. coli

To prove indirectly that the modified intron is indeed capable of splicing in the predetermined environment within the I-CpaI cleavage site, the modified Tetrahymena intron from pCB220-17 together with a portion which surrounds the I-CpaI recognition region from the tobacco 23S rDNA was.cloned in such a way into the lacZ gene of pBluescript that, if this intron is spliced into E. coli (strain XL1-Blue), a functional lacZ peptide can be formed. The expression of the latter can be detected in suitable strains by methods with which the skilled worker is familiar by converting the substance 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β_(D)-galactopyranoside (X-Gal) in the medium into a blue pigment. This vector was named pCB315-1. The lacZ gene including the introns in the vector pCB315-1 is described by SEQ ID NO: 9. The vector backbone is identical with pBluescript. The sequence comprises the following elements:

-   -   lacZ-5′ portion: complementary (789-765)     -   multiple cloning site from pBluescript: complementary (764-692)     -   23S rDNA fragment upstream and including the I-CpaI recognition         region: complementary (691-682)     -   modified-Tetrahymena intron: complementary (681-269)     -   23S rDNA fragment upstream and including the I-CpaI recognition         region: complementary (268-244)     -   multiple cloning site from pBluescript: complementary (243-168)     -   lacZ-5′ portion: complementary (167-1)

A plasmid which corresponds to pCB315-1, but which plasmid (PCB305-1) lacks the element for the modified Tetrahymena intron, was generated for control purposes. pCB305-1 thus acted as positive control to demonstrate that lacZ, with the tobacco plastome 23S rDNA nucleotides incorporated in the reading frame is still functional. This reflects the situation after correct splicing of the Tetrahymena intron. XL1-Blue competent cells were transformed with the plasmids pCB315-1 and pCB305-1 by means of a method with which the skilled worker is familiar. In each case one individual colony was incubated on LB (Bactotryptone: 10 g/l, yeast extract: 5 g/l, NaCl: 10 g/l, pH 7.5) plates comprising g/l Bacto agar, 40 μg/l ampicillin, 75 μg/l IPTG (isopropyl-β_(D)-thiogalactopyranoside) and 80 μg/l X-Gal overnight at 37° C. In fact, both clones turned blue, which suggests that the modified Tetrahymena intron was spliced in the non-natural environment of the tobacco 23S rDNA in the heterologous organismus E. coli.

10.3: Introduction of Further Sequences into the Tetrahymena LSU Intron

In addition to the experiments in Example 10.2, the possibility of incorporating further elements into the modified Tetrahymena intron without destroying the splicing activity was studied. To this end, pCB315-1 was linearized with BglII and the overhangs were filled up with the aid of Klenow fragment. Then, an XhoI-SacI fragment as is found in pCB199-3 was therefore cloned into this vector, likewise after treatment with Klenow fragment. A 229 bp fragment was thus inserted into the modified intron by this cloning step. This fragment comprises an I-PpoI recognition region. Independently of the orientation in which the 229 bp fragment inserted into the Tetrahymena intron, a blue coloration was detected in the test as described in Example 10.2. This suggests that the Tetrahymena intron is capable both of splicing at the desired region in the 23S rDNA and of incorporating additional genetic information while nevertheless retaining a splicing activity.

10.4 Transformation of a Natural Master Plant and Destruction of the Endogenous I-CpaI Recognition Region with the Modified Tetrahymena Intron

The modified Tetrahymena intron was excised from the vector pCB220-17 using BpiI and cloned into the BpiI linearized vector pCB234-1 as described in principle in Example 8. The resulting vector was named pCB255-1.

pCB255-1 is applied to gold particles simultaneously with in vitro transcript of pCB262-5 (linearized with SalI, using T7 polymerase) by the method described in Example 4. These gold particles are subsequently used to bombard tobacco plants cv. Petit Havana analogously to the method described in Example 4. If appropriate, the explants can be selected on lincomycin (250 to 500 mg/l).

Example 11 Ll.LtrB intron from Lactococcus lactis

The Ll.LtrB intron including few bases of the flanking exon sequences was amplified from Lactococcus lactis by means of PCR using the primers p207 and p208. The PCR product was cloned into the vector pCR2.1TA (Invitrogen) (pCB345-34) and sequenced (SEQ ID NO: 10). Few deviations in comparison with the published sequence were found. p207 5′-GAGAAGACATTCCTAACACATCCATAACGTG (SEQ ID NO: 32) CG-3′ p208 5′-TGAAGACTTGACATTTGATATGGTGAAGTAG (SEQ ID NO: 33) G-3′

The cloned fragment in pCB345-34 (from the EcoRI cleavage site to the EcoRI cleavage site of the pCR2.1TA vector) is represented in SEQ ID NO: 10. The remainder of the vector is identical with the backbone of pCR2.1TA. The sequence comprises the following elements:

-   -   Portion of the natural 5′ exon: complementary (2540-2527)     -   Intron Ll.LtrB: complementary (2526-35)     -   ORF in the intron: complementary (1953-154)     -   Portion of the natural 3′ exon: complementary (34-28)

Example 12 Generation of a Further Derivative of the Tetrahymena LSU Intron, and Incorporation of a Foreign Gene into this Intron Derivative, and Transformation into Natural Master Plants

In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, an artificial intron was generated, which intron can be incorporated into the plastidic genome at precisely the position where the natural intron belonging to the DSB recognition sequence under investigation resides. In the present example, the Tetrahymena LSU intron was modified in such a way that it is capable of splicing at the position marked “ˆ” at the recognition site, identified within the scope of the present invention, for the DSBI enzyme I-CpaI in the plastidic genome of higher plants: CGATCCTAAGGTˆAGCGAAATTCA.

The gene encoding I-CpaI including an RBS was subsequently incorporated into the intron. This gave rise to an intron which has splicing activity, bears a foreign gene and which can be incorporated, by means of the process found within the scope of the present invention, into the plastids of a natural master plant within an essential gene (encoding the 23S rRNA).

12.1: Generation of a further Tetrahymena LSU Intron Derivative

To obtain a functional intron derivative at a predefined insertion site, the internal guide sequence (IGS) must be adapted in such a way that it is capable of undergoing base pairing with the 5′ and the 3′ exon. FIG. 10 illustrates how this adaptation was carried out in the present example in order to generate a Tetrahymena intron derivative which is capable of splicing at the natural insertion site of the CpLSU5 intron within the I-CpaI recognition region. An adaptation to any desired insertion site can be carried out analogously. The intron generated within the scope of the present example was named TetIVS2a and is described by SEQ ID NO: 73.

12.2: Indirect Detection of the Splicing Activity of the TetIVS2a intron in E. coli

TetIVS2a was incorporated into the lacz gene of pBluescript analogously to Example 10.2. After suitable incubation of E. coli XL1-blue cells which comprised the plasmid pCB459-1, a blue coloration indicated the splicing activity of the TetIVS2a intron at the desired position.

Components of the insert from plasmid pCB459-1 (SEQ ID NO: 74; backbone corresponds to pBluescript)

-   -   lacZ-3′ portion including parts of the multiple cloning site         from pBluescript (complementary to position 1-254)     -   Sequence from the I-CpaI recognition region (complementary to         position 254-265)     -   TetIVS2a (complementary to position 266-678)     -   Sequence from the I-CpaI recognition region (complementary to         position 679-687)     -   lacZ-5′ portion including parts of the multiple cloning site         from pBluescript (complementary to position 688-791)         12.3: Introduction of further Genetic Information into the         TetIVS2a Intron and Detection of the Splicing Activity in E.         coli

In this example, the gene encoding the DSBI enzyme I-CpaI is introduced into TetIVS2a without the latter losing its splicing activity at said position within the I-CpaI recognition region.

To this end, a BclI cleavage site was first introduced, by PCR, into the sequence segment of TetIVS2a which corresponds to loop L8 in the Tetrahymena LSU intron. A nonfunctional derivative of the gene encoding I-CpaI was then incorporated into this BclI cleavage site. Since the expression of 1-CpaI in E. coli is toxic, it was necessary to use, for the splice test in E. coli, a nonfunctional gene which had previously been generated by linearizing the gene in question at the EcoRI cleavage site, making the overhangs blunt-ended by Klenow treatment and subsequently religating the gene segments. This resulted in a reading-frame shift in the gene. Incorporation of said intron with the nonfunctional gene into the lacZ gene of pBluescript gave rise to the plasmid pCB478-3 and, again, it was possible to detect the splicing activity of this intron in E. coli at the desired position within the I-CpaI recognition site by means of the blue coloration of colonies in question, analogously to Example 12.2. Since the functional gene encoding I-CpaI differs from the nonfunctional gene used in pCB478-3 by only 4 bases, it can be assumed that the intron retains the desired splicing activity, even after the functional, instead of the nonfunctional, I-CpaI gene has been incorporated.

Components of the insert of plasmid pCB478-3 (SEQ ID NO: 75; backbone corresponds to pBluescript)

-   -   lacZ-3′ portion including parts of the multiple cloning site         from pBluescript (complementary to position 1-265)     -   Sequence from the I-CpaI recognition region (complementary to         position 256-265)     -   TetIVS2a (complementary to position 266-1178), comprising a         nonfunctional gene for I-CpaI (complementary to position         399-861) and an RSB upstream of the nonfunctional I-CpaI gene         (complementary to 866-870)     -   Sequence from the I-CpaI recognition region (complementary to         position 1179-1187)     -   lacZ-51 portion including parts of the multiple cloning site         from pBluescript (complementary to position 1179-1291)         12.4: Transformation of a Self-Disseminating, Artificial Intron         in a Natural Master Plant

After it had been demonstrated that the TetIVS2a intron is capable of splicing at the desired position and of simultaneously incorporating further genetic information without losing this splicing activity, a construct was generated which is intended to ake possible that the I-CpaI gene can be introduced into the plastidic genome by means of the method described within the scope of the present invention in the form of a foreign gene without using a selection marker. To this end, the vector pCB492-25, which comprises an insert with the following elements was first generated (SEQ ID NO: 76; backbone corresponds to that of pBluescript; sequence from BssHII to BssHII in pBluescript is indicated, the BssHII cleavage site indicated here at the 5′ end is the BssHII cleavage site in pBluescript which is localized closer to the 3′ end of the lacZ gene):

-   -   23S rDNA fragment upstream of and including the I-CpaI         recognition region (position 37-203)     -   TetIVS2a (position 204-1112) with inserted gene encoding I-CpaI         (position 521-979) and RBS (position 512-516)     -   23S rDNA fragment downstream of and including the I-CpaI         recognition region (position 1113-1247)

To ensure expression of 1-CpaI directly after the introduction into plastids of natural master plants, a promoter was added in vitro upstream of said intron Cpa construct by means of PCR. The primers p396 and p95 and, as template, pCB492-25 were used for this purpose. p396: 5′-TAGTAAATGACAATTTTCCTCTGAATTATAT (SEQ ID NO: 77) AATTAACATGGCGACTGTTTACCAAAAAC-3 p95: 5′-CTCAATTGGGGTCTCTCTGTCCAGGTGCAG (SEQ ID NO: 78) G-3′

The resulting PCR product was named Prom-TetIVS2a-Cpa, is described by SEQ ID NO: 79 and comprised the following elements:

-   -   synthetic promoter (position 8-40)     -   tobacco 23S rDNA upstream of and including portions of the         I-CpaI recognition region (position 41-207)     -   TetIVS2a (position 208-1116) comprising gene encoding I-CpaI         (position 525-983) and RBS (position 516-520)     -   tobacco 23S rDNA downstream of and including portions of the         I-CpaI recognition region (position 1117-1243)

The plasmid pCB492-25 was applied to gold particles simultaneously with the above-described PCR product Prom-TetIVS2a-Cpa as described in Example 4 and subsequently used to bombard wild-type tobacco. By expression of the I-CpaI enzyme, it was intended to bring about a double-strand break in the 23S rDNA, which double-strand break is repaired by the PCR product which has been introduced or by the insertion sequence, of the plasmid pCB492-25, which has been introduced. The I-CpaI recognition region, which is naturally present, is thereby inactivated in the transformed plastome copies. Plants were regenerated without any selection pressure, and these plants are tested by PCR for the presence of the insertion sequence in the plastome.

Example 13 Dissemination of the Modified Tetrahymena LSU Intron from pCB255-1 in a Natural Master Plant by Expression of the DSBI Enzyme I-CpaI in trans

This example shows how a DSBI enzyme can be expressed in the plastids of master plants in order to efficiently disseminate an insertion sequence in the copies of the master plant.

13.1: Generation of a Vector for the Transformation of Plastids which Permits the Expression of the Homing Endonuclease I-CpaI in Plastids

First, a vector which encodes the selection marker aada and the DSBI enzyme I-CpaI was generated. Since expression of the I-CpaI enzyme is lethal in E. coli, the accD promoter was chosen in order to allow for the expression of this enzyme in the plastids, but to prevent the expression in E. coli. Thus, it was possible to generate and amplify this vector in a conventional manner with E. coli as the host organism. The resulting vector was named pCB435-45 and comprised an insert as shown in SEQ ID NO: 80 with the following elements:

-   -   Right-hand target region (as in pCB42-94, see above;         complementary to position 66-1403)     -   promoter PaccD (position 1422-1478)     -   RBS (position 1500-1504)     -   Gene encoding I-CpaI (position 1509-1967)     -   Expression cassette for the marker gene aada consisting of: the         3′ region of the psbA gene (complementary to position 2065-1974)     -   aada gene (complementary to position 2872-2078)     -   5′-untranslated regions of the tobacco rbcL gene (complementary         to position 2890-2873), partly mutated     -   Promoter of the gene for the 16S rRNA (complementary to position         2987 to 2897)     -   Left-hand target region (as in pCB42-94, see above;         complementary to position 3863-3007)     -   Portions of the pBluescript (including origin of replication;

positions 3864-4746 and 1-65)

13.2 Cotransformation of pCB435-45 and pCB255-1 into Natural Master Plants

The plasmids pCB435-45 and pCB255-1 were applied simultaneously to gold particles as detailed in Example 4 and then introduced into plastids of tobacco leaves by means of the particle gun. Transplastomic plants were selected on regeneration medium supplemented with 500 mg/l spectinomycin as described in Example 4. As soon as plantlets had formed, they were transferred to growth medium supplemented with 500 mg/l spectinomycin, and leaf material was harvested. This leaf material was analyzed by Southern analysis using the Dig-Easy Hyb® (Roche Diagnostics; Mannheim) for the incorporation of the two plasmids into the plastidic genome. A probe with a sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO: 81 was used to determine the percentage of plastome copies which were transgenic with regard to the insertion sequence from pCB435-45 (probe directed against portions of the 16S rDNA).

A probe with a sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO: 82 was used to determine the percentage of plastome copies which were transgenic with regard to the insertion sequence from pCB255-1 (probe directed against portions of the 23S rDNA).

FIG. 11 shows that, in this experiment, 2 lines (CB255+435NTH-19 and -20) were identified which are transgenic with regard to both the insertion sequence of pCB435-45 and that from pCB255-1. It was furthermore demonstrated in this manner that, surprisingly, the insertion sequence from pCB255-1 (modified Tetrahymena LSU intron) had already been disseminated into more copies of the plastidic genome than the insertion sequence from pCB435-45, even though the selection had been carried for the event of the insertion of the insertion sequence from pCB435-45 (aadA marker gene resides in pCB435-45). The efficiency of the method described within the present invention—viz. the insertion and rapid dissemination of an insertion sequence in the plastidic genome without selecting for the presence of this insertion sequence by utilizing DSBI enzymes and suitable recognition sites—has thus been demonstrated for said lines in the present example.

Example 14 Generation of Further Master Plants with a DSB Recognition Region which does not Naturally Occur in Plastids, and Transformation of These Plants Utilizing the DSBI enzyme I-PpoI

14.1: Generation of a Further Vector (pCB456-2) for Introducing a Non-Naturally-Occurring Recognition Region for the Homing Endonuclease I-PpoI into the Plastome of Tobacco

The purpose of this approach was (analogously to Example 3) to generate a further vector for the transformation of plastids, which vector has no extensive homologies with sequences in the plastidic genome.

In this plasmid, the selection marker aada is under the control of a synthetic promoter which is derived from the consensus sequence for E. coli a70 promoters. A region downstream of the Synechocystis 3′psbA-1 gene was used as the 3′ end. In contrast to the vector pCB199-3 which has already been described, the DSB recognition sequence was here introduced into the molecule immediately downstream of the aada gene, but upstream of the Synechocystis 3′psbA-1 sequence. An operon can be generated thereby with the aid of a DSBI enzyme following insertion of an insertion sequence. The genes on the insertion sequence can then be optionally inserted on the insertion sequence without promoter. After the insertion, suitable genes of the insertion sequence then also come under the control of the synthetic promoter upstream of the aada gene in the master plant. An operon structure consisting of the aada and the subsequently introduced genes can thereby optionally be generated in the plastome.

Various elements were cloned one after the other into the basic vector pCB42-94 in order to generate the plasmid pCB456-2:

-   -   Synthetic promoter (complementary to bp 1226-1260)     -   Ribosome binding site (complementary to bp 1214-1218)     -   aada gene (complementary to bp 414-1208)     -   Core recognition region for the homing endonuclease I-PpoI         (complementary to bp 331-345)     -   3′psbA-1 from Synechocystis (complementary to bp 19-155)

The vector thus obtained also confers spectinomycin resistance in E. coli. This vector, which is named pCB456-2, comprises the abovementioned elements within the nucleic acid sequence with the SEQ ID NO: 83, instead of the multiple cloning site in the basic vector pCB42-94 for the transformation of plastids. Again, all of the sequence which replaces MCS (from SacI to KpnI) is indicated.

14.2: Generation of Predominantly Homotransplastomic Master Plants which Comprise a Normatural DSB Recognition Sequence

The vector pCB456-2 was introduced into the plastids of tobacco analogously to pCB199-3 in Example 4. However, as opposed to the description in Example 4, the shoots obtained were grown on growth medium comprising 30 g/l sucrose (instead of the 10 g/l stated in Example 4). The resulting plants were named CB456NTH. 2 lines which have the insertion sequence from pCB456-2 incorporated into their plastome (CB456NTH-1 and -15, cf. FIG. 12) were identified among the spectinomycin-resistant plants obtained after the transformation, using Southern hybridization. A probe which was directed against a fragment of the 16S rDNA was employed in the Southern experiment (cf. Example 13.2 above). This probe was suitable for detecting an approx. 3.1 kb fragment from EcoRI-digested DNA corresponding to the wild type. In contrast, an approx. 1.7 kb fragment was detected when the insertion sequence from pCB456-2 had been incorporated into the corresponding plastome copies.

14.3: Generation of a Transformation Vector for Artificial Homing in the Master Plants CB456NTH

First, an operon structure consisting of the elements RBS—nptII (encoding an enzyme which confers kanamycin resistance)—RBS -1-PpoI (encoding a DSBI enzyme) was generated. This cassette was surrounded with BstXI cleavage sites which, after exposure to the enzyme BstXI, generate DNA ends which are compatible with the DNA ends generated by the enzyme I-PpoI. The resulting vector (backbone corresponds to that of pBluescript) was named pCB528-2 and comprises an insert as shown in SEQ ID NO: 84 with the following elements:

-   -   RBS (position 28-32)     -   nptII (position 27-840)     -   RBS (position 849-853)     -   Gene encoding I-PpoI (position 859-1350)

The 1360 bp fragment was subsequently excised from pCB528-2 using BstXI and ligated into the I-PpoI cleavage site in the vector pCB456-2. Clones with kanamycin resistance were selected from those obtained after the ligation products had been transformed into E. coli. It was thereby ensured that said insert in the clone in question was inserted in the vector in such a way that the nptII and I-PpoI cassettes had the same orientation as the aada cassette. This was also verified by the restriction analysis method, with which the skilled worker is familiar. The vector in question was named pCB535-11.

14.4: Transformation of pCB535-11 into master plants CB456NTH pCB535-11 was applied to gold particles as described for pCB456-2 in Example 14.2 and subsequently introduced into plastids of the master plant CB456NTH-1 using the particle gun.

Some of the explants were incubated on regeneration medium without any selection pressure. Resulting plants were transferred to growth medium (again without selection pressure). Therafter, the plants are analyzed by PCR for the presence of the RBS-nptII-RBS-I-PpoI cassette.

Other explants were incubated on regeneration medium supplemented with 15 or 30 mg/l kanamycin. After 2 weeks, the plants are transferred to fresh regeneration medium and the kanamycin concentration increased stepwise to 50 and 80 mg/l, respectively. 

1. A method for integration of a DNA sequence into a plastid DNA comprising: combining a transformation construct with at least one enzyme suitable for directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks at a recognition sequence of the plastid DNA, wherein said transformation construct contains an insertion sequence; inducing DNA double-strand breaks at the recognition sequence; and inserting the insertion sequence into the recognition sequence of the plastid DNA at the DNA double-strand breaks, wherein functionality of the recognition sequence for the directed induction is deactivated and said recognition sequence is no longer capable of being cleaved by the at least one enzyme.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the recognition sequence and the insertion sequence are flanked at least unilaterally by sequences with sufficient length and sufficient homology to ensure homologous recombination with each other.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the transformation construct encompasses at least one of the elements selected from the group consisting of: i) expression cassette for an enzyme suitable for the induction of DNA double-strand breaks at the recognition sequence for the directed induction of DNA double-strand breaks; ii) positive selection markers; iii) negative selection markers; iv) reporter genes; v) replication origins; vi) multiple cloning regions; vii) border sequences for agrobacterium transfection; viii) sequences which make possible a homologous recombination or insertion into the genome of a host organism; and ix) combinations thereof.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the enzyme is selected from the group consisting of restriction endonucleases, homing endonucleases, chimeric nucleases, mutated restriction or homing endonucleases and RNA protein particles derived from mobile group II introns, fusion proteins of the abovementioned proteins with plastid localization sequences, and combinations thereof.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one enzyme is selected from the group of homing endonucleases consisting of F-SceI, F-SceII, F-SuvI, F-TevI, F-TevII, I-AmaI, I-AniI, I-Ceul, I-CeuAIIP, I-ChuI, I-CmoeI, I-CpaI, I-CpaII, I-CreI, I-CrepsbIP, I-CrepsbIIP, I-CrepsbIIIP, I-CrepsbIVP, I-CsmI, I-CvuI, I-CvuAIP, I-DdiII, I-DirI, I-DmoI, I-HspNIP, I-LlaI, I-MsoI, I-NaaI, I-NanI, I-NclIP, I-NgrIP, I-NitI, I-NjaI, I-Nsp2361P, I-Paki, I-PboIP, I-PcuIP, I-PcuAI, I-PcuVI, I-PgrIP, I-PobIP, I-PorI, I-PorIIP, I-PpbIP, I-PpoI, I-SPBetaIP, I-ScaI, I-Scel, I-SceII, I-SceIII, I-SceIV, I-SceV, I-SceVI, I-SceVII, I-SexIP, I-SneIP, I-SpomCP, I-SpomIP, I-SpomIIP, I-SquIP, I-Ssp6803I, I-SthphiJP, I-SthPhiST3P, 1-SthPhiS3bP, I-TdeIP, I-TevI, I-TevII, I-TevIII, I-UarAP, I-UarHGPA1P, I-UarHGPA13P, I-VinIP, I-ZbiIP, PI-MtuI, PI-MtuHIP, PI-MtuHIIP, PI-PfuI, PI-PfuII, PI-PkoI, PI-PkoII, PI-PspI, PI-Rma438121P, PI-SPBetaIP, PI-SceI, PI-TfuI, PI-TfuII, PI-Thyl, PI-TliI, PI-TliIII, and fusion proteins of the above with plastid localization sequences, and combinations thereof.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one enzyme is selected from the group consisting of enzymes that contain the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5, 12, 14 or
 71. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least one enzyme is expressed from an expression cassette.
 8. An expression cassette comprising an enzyme suitable for induction of DNA double-strand breaks at a recognition sequence for directed induction in a plant plastid DNA under the control of a promoter which is functional in plant plastids.
 9. The expression cassette of claim 8, further comprising a fusion protein of a plastid translocation sequence.
 10. A multi-celled plant formed from the predominantly homotransplastomic plant cell selected by the method of claim
 22. 11. The multi-celled plant of claim 10, further comprising an expression cassette inserted into the plastid DNA.
 12. The multi-celled plant of claim 10, further comprising an expression cassette inserted into nuclear DNA of said plant cell.
 13. The multi-celled plant claim 10, wherein the plant is selected from the group-consisting of Arabidopsis thaliana, tobacco, Tagetes, wheat, rye, barley, oats, oilseed rape, maize, potato, sugar beet, soybean, sunflower, pumpkin/squash and peanut.
 14. A cell culture, organ, tissue, part or transgenic propagation material derived from a the multi-celled plant of claim
 10. 15. A pharmaceutical, fine chemicals, food, feed or seed, comprising the cell culture, organ, part or transgenic propagation material of claim
 14. 16. A DNA construct comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence and an intron sequence capable of ensuring, in a ribonucleic acid sequence derived from said DNA construct, deletion of the ribonucleic acid fragment encoding said at least one nucleic acid sequence, wherein said at least one nucleic acid sequence is heterologous to said intron sequence.
 17. The DNA construct of claim 16, wherein the at least one nucleic acid sequence is flanked by one or both of a splice acceptor sequence and a splice donor sequence.
 18. The DNA construct of claim 16, which comprises, at the 5′ and 3′ ends, sequences H1 and H2, respectively, which are of a sufficient length and homology in comparison with plastid sequences H1′ and H2′, respectively, to ensure homologous recombination between H1 and H1′, or H2 and H2′, and thus insertion of sequences flanking H1 and H2 into a plastome.
 19. A transgenic plastid DNA comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence and an intron sequence capable of ensuring, in a ribonucleic acid sequence derived from said transgenic plastid DNA, deletion of a ribonucleic acid fragment encoding said at least one nucleic acid sequence, wherein said at least one nucleic acid sequence is heterologous to said intron sequence.
 20. A The transgenic plastid DNA of claim 19, wherein the at least one nucleic acid sequence is flanked by a splice acceptor sequence and a splice donor sequence.
 21. A transgenic plant comprising a the transgenic plastid DNA of claim
 20. 22. The method of claim 1, further comprising selecting the predominantly homotransplastomic plant cell containing the insertion sequence inserted into the plastid DNA.
 23. The method of claim 1, wherein the transformation construct is small in relation to integration by double crossover.
 24. The method of claim 1, wherein the plastid DNA is derived from a cell of a multi-celled plant.
 25. The method of claim 24, which results in a selection pressure of incorporating the insertion sequence into all copies of the plastid DNA of said cell.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the insertion sequence is spread throughout said multi-celled plant independently of a selection marker.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the selection marker is an herbicide or an antibiotic resistance marker.
 28. The expression cassette of claim 8, wherein the enzyme is selected from the group consisting of restriction endonucleases, homing endonucleases, chimeric nucleases, mutated restriction or homing endonucleases and RNA protein particles derived from mobile group II introns, fusion proteins of the abovementioned proteins with plastid localization sequences, and combinations thereof.
 29. The expression cassette of claim 8, wherein the enzyme is selected from the group consisting of F-Scel, F-SceII, F-SuvI, F-TevI, F-TevII, I-AmaI, I-AniI, I-CeuI, I-CeuAIP, I-Chul, I-Cmoel, I-CpaI, I-Cpall, I-Crel, I-CrepsbIP, I-CrepsbIP, I-CrepsbIIIP, I-CrepsbIVP, I-CsmI, I-CvuI, I-CvuAIP, I-DdiII, I-DirI, I-DmoI, I-HspNIP, I-LlaI, I-MsoI, I-NaaI, I-NanI, I-NclIP, I-NgrIP, I-NitI, I-NjaI, I-Nsp236IP, I-PakI, I-PboIP, I-PcuIP, I-PcuAI, I-PcuVI, I-PgrIP, I-PobIP, I-PorI, I-PorIIP, I-PpbIP, I-PpoI, I-SPBetaIP, I-ScaI, I-Scel, I-SceII, I-SceII, I-SceIV, I-SceV, I-SceVI, I-SceVII, I-SexIP, I-SneIP, I-SpomCP, I-SpomIP, I-SpomIIP, I-SquIP, I-Ssp6803I, I-SthPhiJP, I-SthPhiST3P, I-SthPhiS36bP I-TdeIP, I-TevI, I-TevII, I-TevEi, I-UarAP, I-UarHGPA1P, I-UarHGPA-13P, I-VinIP, I-ZbiIP, PI-MtuI, PI-MtuHIP, PI-MtuHIP, PI-PfuI, PI-PfuII, PI-PkoI, PI-PkoII, PI-PspI, PI-Rma438121P, PI-SPBetaIP, PI-Scel, PI-TfuI, PI-TfuII, PI-Thyl, PI-TliI, PI-TliII, fusion proteins of the above with plastid localization sequences, and combinations thereof.
 30. The expression cassette of claim 8, wherein the promoter is functional in a plant nucleus. 